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'HE Water World : 



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ON THE BROAD, BUOAD OCEAN. ITS LAWS ; ITS PHENOMENA ; ITS 
PRODUCTS AND ITS INHABITANTS ; GRAPHICALLY DESCRIBING ITS 
CURRENTS, TIDES, WAVES; ITS WHIRLPOOLS, WATER-SPOUTS, 
TYPHOONS AND TRADE WINDS; ITS CORAL REEFS, 
PEARLS, SHELLS, SPONGES, FISHERIES ; ITS ANIMAL 
LIFE, MINUTE AND MAMMOTH, FROM THE BUT- 
TERFLIES OF SUB-MARINE FORESTS AND 
MEADOWS, TO SHARKS, WHALES AND 
SEA DRAGONS; WITH CHAPTERS ON 
STEAMSHIPS, LIGHT - HOUSES, 
LIFE SA^aNG SERVICE 
&C., &C., &C. 

BY 

PROF. J. W. VAN DERVOORT. 

EDITOR OF 



THE TWO HEMISPHERES. 



Wwrntummtj lltaetrat^d, 



SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. 



188«. 

UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE, 

NEW YOEK. 
Cincinnati, O. Atlanta, Ga. 






TO 

MY ESTEEMED FRIEND, 

MR, JAMES MONTEITH, 

AS A 

TESTIMONIAL OF HIS SUCCESS IN POPULARIZING THB 

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED STATES, 

THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 



COPYRIGHTED BY 

UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE. 



Earth has not a plain 

So boundless or so beautiful as thine ; 

The eagle's vision cannot take it in ; 

The lightning's glance too iveak to sweep its space, 

Sinks half-ivay o'er it, like a wearied bird ; 

It is the mirror of the stars, where all 

Their hosts tmthin the concave firmament, 

Gay marching to the music of the spheres. 

Can see themselves at once. 

— Campbell. 




ERY little, comparatively, 
V has heretofore been writ- 
ten on this subject. This is 
most singular when it is consid- 
ered that this majestic ocean, 
" whose mighty heart throbs in 
sympathy with the pulse of 
God," covers more than three- 
fourths of the entire globe. 

We write about the ocean be- 
cause it is a subject of univer- 
sal interest, and for the reason 
that a knowledge of its laws, 
phenomena, and inhabitants is 
conducive to right-liviDg and 
enjoyment. 

It has been our aim to write 
for the people and by avoiding 
technical terms clothe the sub- 
ject in such language as shall 
make it interesting and easily 
comprehended by all. 



CONTENTS. 11 

Pack 

sailed — Award of Paris Geographical Society — The Jeannette 
Expedition — Return of the survivors — Polar Stations — The Greely 
Expedition — Retreat to . Cape Sabine — Starvation — The Relief 
Squadron — Home again . , 43 — 71 

CHAPTER III. 

ICEBERGS. 

Icebergs among the wonders of the ocean world — Grand and im- 
posing — Imitating every style of architecture — Differ in color — 
Strange and sudden formations — Many of great height — Origin — 
Greenland — Glaciers — Their immense length — Birthplaces of ice- 
bergs — Moved by powerful currents — Dangers from icebergs on 
their floating voyages — Terror excited by them among the early 
navigators — Awful sublimity of the floating ice mountains — Hair- 
breadth escape — Supposed loss of the "President" and other 
vessels from collisions with icebergs — Danger of mooring vessels 
to icebergs — A picnic on an iceberg — The " Resolute" exploring 
ship — Formation and destruction of ice — Beautiful provision of 
Nature . . 72—82 

CHAPTER IV. 
LIFE IN THE OCEAN. 

Sublime ideas of the infinite — Mystery of life — Two great powers — 
Death is the foster mother of life — Life maintains life — Exuber- 
ance of life — The ocean in its profoundest depths — Sea influ- 
ences — Seashore deposits — Source of greatli wealth — Unity and 
diversity 83 — 87 

CHAPTER V. 

MINUTE ANIMAL LIFE. 

Vastness of organic life in the ocean — Food to the larger marine 
animals — Abundance in the Northern seas — Sea nettles — They 
color the waters — Microscopic determinations — A naturalist's 
calculation of the number of animalculae — Animals in a drop of 
water — Illustrates the immensity of creation — Seaweeds — Ani- 
mated worlds — Minute creation governed by the same laws as 
larger — Jelly-fish — Abound in the South Atlantic — Curious 
shapes — Sea-worms — Sea-mouse — Its beautiful color — Curious 



12 CONTENTS. 



Pagp 



arms of marine worms — Nereids — Beautifully colored — White 
rag worms — Sea-leech — Leaping- worms — "Jumping Johnnies" — 
Butterflies of the deep , 88 — 97 



CHAPTER VI. 

CORAL— THE ROCK BUILDERS. 

Beauty of color — Its curious form in the ocean — Formerly supposed 
to be marine plants — Discovered to be the work of minute ani- 
mals — Coral wonders described — How their habitations are 
made — Coral examined under the microscope — Continents built 
by the polyps — Wonderful instinct of the coral workers by 
building walls on the windward side — Qualities and varieties of 
coral described — Manufacture of false coral — Superstitions re- 
specting the changing of color — Perils of the coral reefs — An 
incident of shipwreck 98 — 109 



CHAPTER YII. 

PEARLS. 

Rare and valuable objects of creation — Perilous employment of the 
divers — Condemned criminals formerly employed — Character- 
istics of the pearl divers — Shark charmers — Pearl fishing in the 
Gulf of Manaar — Off the Bahrem Islands — Cingalese divers — 
Separation of the pearl from the oyster — Extent of the pearl 
fishery in Ceylon — System pursued at the Pearl Islands — Oriental 
pearls — Their preparation for market — How pearls are formed in 
the oyster — Amusing account given by Pliny — Suppositions re- 
specting pearls — Curious methods pursued by the Chinese — The 
pearl oyster not the only mollusk which produces pearls — Pearls 
found on the British coasts — Incidents — Extravagant fancy of the 
ancients — Names applied to various kinds — Largest pearls on 
record — Runjeet Smg and his string of pearls 110 — 119 

CHAPTER Vm. 

SPONGES. 

Ancient use of the sponge for helmets, etc. — One of the most valuable 
spoils taken from the ocean — Long undecided whether sponges 



CONTENTS. 13 

Pagb 
belonged to tlje animal or vegetable kingdom— Ranked as 

"zoophytes" or animal plants — Aristotle's definition of the 

sponge — Finest qualities come from the Ottoman Archipelago — 

Sponge fishery at the island of Calymnos — Numbers of persons 

engaged in the sponge fishery — Depth at which sponges are 

found — Methods pursued in diving — Average quantity taken — 

Preparation for market — The sponge in its natural state — Growth 

and increase of the sponge — Article of commerce — Digestion and 

respiration — Preservation, of the sponge fisheries , , .120 — 127 



CHAPTER IX. 

SEALS. 

Arctic summer the proper season for seal fishing — Divisions of labor 
by the Esquimaux — Seal's flesh their chief food — Ancient super- 
stitions — Use of blubber — Methods of capturing the seals — Seal 
fishing the great employment of the Greenlanders — Dangers at- 
tending — Different species of seals — The sea-calf — Peculiar char- 
acteristics — Enemies of seals — The bearded or great seal — The 
hoop-seal — The fur seal — Description, habits, and use — Seals 
fond of music — Tame seals — Incidents — The marbled seal — Con- 
trast between seals of northern and southern seas — Sea elephant — 
Sea lions — The sea leopard — The otories 128 — 141 



CHAPTER X. 

WHALES THE MONARCHS OF THE OCEAN. 

Peculiarities in whales — Distinct from fishes and land animals, 
though resembling both — Description — Strength and utility of 
its tail — Size of the head — Smallness of the throat — Food of the 
whole — Whalebone — Tongue of the whale — The skin — The blub- 
ber — Quantity of oil taken from a whale — Ears, eyes, and fins of 
the whale — Age when they attain their growth — Anecdotes rela- 
tive to the capture — Different species — The northern rorqual — 
The smaller rorqual — The sperm whales — The white whales — 
The deductor — Great capture of whales — Fight between a whale 
and a grampus — Other enemies of the whale — Anecdotes — Attach- 
ment of whales to their young 142— 153 



14 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XL 

THE WHALE FISHERY AND ITS PERILS. 



Pagb 



Description of sli'.ps employed in the whale fishery — Hard work in 
the Polar seas — Mode of Asking — The harpoon — Struggles of the 
whale — Disappointment of a Dutch whaler — Dead whales — Cut- 
ting up the whales — Whale fishery in the southern seas — Inci- 
dent to the Essex in the Pacific Ocean — Ship destroyed by a 
collision with a whale — Story of a Dutch harpooner — New 
Zealand Tom — Incident in the Pacific to the whaling vessel 
Independence — Paying out the rope — Incident to the whaling 
vessel Aimwell — Loss of the Princess Cliarlotte — Wonderful 
escape of the Trafalgar — Calamities of a whaling squadron — The 
Rattler— The Achilles 1 54—1 67 



CHAPTER XII. 

SHARKS THE PIRATES OF THE OCEAN. 

Fossil sharks — Enormous teeth — The white shark — Its extreme vo- 
racity — Great tenacity of life — Its preference for human flesh — 
Horrible tragedy — Habit of bounding out of the sea — Punishing 
a shark — Manner of catcMng sharks in the South Sea Islands — 
Captain Basil Hall's account of the capture of a shark — Worship 
of sharks by the inhabitants — Rapacity of the shark — Hooks for 
shark fishing — Fearful incident to the crew of the "Magpie" — 
The hammer headed shark — The smooth shark — Dog fish — Angel 
fish — Greenland shark — Basking shark — Taken for the sea ser- 
. pent — Pilot fish — Companion to the shark — Pilot fish described. 168 — 185 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SEA-HORSES AND NARWAHLS. 

The morse walrus or sea-horse — Description — Immense slaughter of 
them — For what purposes — Ferocity when attacked — Affec- 
tion for its young — Battles between the walrus and the Polar 
bear — The sword fish a fierce enemy — Sea unicorn — Described — 
Color — Their habits — Mode of catching them — Herd in flocks — 
Playfulness — Its speed ,.....- 186 — 195 



CONTENTS. 15 

CHAPTER XIV. 



NAUTILI THE FLOATING NAVIGATORS OF THE OCEAN. 



Pagk 



The nautilus " the ocean mab" and " fairy of the sea" — The fish de- 
scribed by Prof. Owen — Real method of its propulsion — The 
paper nautilus — Its supposed sails — Glaucus a real rover on the 
ocean — A wonderful builder — Intelliofence displayed — Pearly 
nautilus — Gem of the deep — The argonaut — Sea bladder or Por- 
tuguese man-of-war — Beauty of its colors — Appear like prismatic 
shells — Their stinging properties — Specimens of fossil nautili in 
the British museum — Ammonite — Most beautiful of all fossils — 
Petrified snakes — The cuttle fish — One of the feasts of fisher- 
men — Their ink bags — Prodigious size of some species — Mode of 
fishing with the cuttle fish described by Columbus — Belongs to 
a period before the flood 196 — 210 

CHAPTER XV. 

MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 
Use of nets dates from the earliest times — Great improvements of 
late in the manufacture of nets — Variety of nets used by fisher- 
men — Description of them — Fishing by electric light — Birds 
trained to catch fish — Their wonderful sagacity — South Sea 
Islanders expert fishermen — Singular mode of taking the needle 
fish — Fishing by the light — Indians' method of taking tlie candle 
fish — The white porpoise — Fishing for the sea pike — The tunny 
fishery — Sturgeon fishery — Conger-eel fishery — Great conger-eel 
described — Sand-eel fishery — Mackeral fishery — Nets employed — 
Herring fishery — Modes of fishing — Curing herring — Dog fish — 
Hake — Pilcherd — Sprats and white bait, and how taken — The 
Sardine — Cod fishery on the banks of Newfoundland — The m<jdera 
cod sinock — The haddock — The coal fish — Common hake — The 
turbot — The turtle — Modes of taking them — Crabs — Mode of 
taking them — Hermit crab — King crab — Prawns and shrimps — 
Mussels — Mussel farms — Oyster farming — Age at which the 
oyster is ready for the table — Its best qualities — The enemies of 
the jyster — Lobsters 211—260 

CHAPTER XVI. 

ODDS AND ENDS ABOUT FISHES. 
Strange and varied characters of fishes — The money of commerce in 
some countries — Form of fishes — The tail the great organ of 



16 CONTENTS. 

Page 
motion — Air or swimming bladder — Respiration — Baits made 

attractive by scents — Nostrils of fislies — Taste — Touch — Scales — 
Eyes — Teeth — Hearing — Brain — Eggs — Uses of fish — Curative 
properties of certain fish — The torpedo — Violent shocks — Electric 
apparatus described — Effects produced on fishermen — The elec- 
tric eel — Its physical properties — The sting ray — Enormous fins — 
The great and little weever — Stinging powers of the physalis — 
Sucking fishes — Sea owl — Snail — Lumpsucker — The sea lam- 
prey — Its powerful sucker — Lampreys fed on human flesh — The 
gunard fish — Peculiarities — Many species remarkable for beauty 
of colors — The sea scorpion — Sticklebacks — The flying gunard — 
Emits phosphoric light — Flying fishes — Musical fish — The devil 
fish — Its enormous size and strength — Devil fish taken hi Dela- 
ware Bay — Monstrous skates — The fishing frog or angler — 
Description — Mode of attracting its prey — Capture of an immense 
saw fish — An East Indiaman attacked by a sword-fish — Dolphin — 
Atlantic species — Cat-fish — Sucking fish — Sea peacock — Blue 
fish — The true dolphin described — Pursue the flying fish — The 
common mackerel a beautiful fish — The John Dory — The boar 
fish — The opah or king fish — The red mullet — Purchased at 
enormous prices — The basse or sea perch — The Mediterranean 
Apogon — The lettered seranus — The choetocion — The Archer — 
A favorite with the Chinese — The Riband shaped fish family — 
The butterfly fish — Wrasses, or old wives of the sea — The rain- 
bow — Parrot fish — The scarus — The sea horse — The chimera or 
rabbit fish — Repulsive form — Beauty of colors intended for the 
admiration of man 261—308 



CHAPTER XYII. 

SHELLS. 

Wonderful shaping and moulding of shells — The structure of shells 
adapted to the requirements of the inhabitant — Apparatus of two 
shelled animals — Power over the valves — Conchology — Shells 
formerly regarded as toys — Shells of southern Europe — Greater 
portion of shell animals carnivorous — Shells of tropical America- 
Western coasts of Africa — The harp shell — The cockle — The 
cowry — Bi^autiful and rare shells found on the coasts of Austra- 
lia — Deep sea shells — Lowest part of the earth consist of shell 
remains — Shells used for making roads — Helix or snail genus — 
The clam or bear's paw — Varieties of shells — Formation of 



CONTENTS. 17 

Pagb 
shells — Sea shells perform an important part in the economy of 

nature — Use of shells multifarious — Trumpet shell — Shell fish 

as an article of food — Giant clams — Porcelain shells — Roaring 

buckie harp shells — Fountain shells — Razor siiells — Trough 

shells :-j09 322 

CHAPTER XYIIL 

bEA BIRDS. 

Number and variety of marine birds — Roosting places — The gull 
family — General description — Sorue gulls expert in breaking the 
shells of mollusks — Tricks played by seamen on gulls — The 
skuas — The petrels — Among the most interesting of marine 
birds — The storm petrel — Sea swallows — The albatros — A great 
fish eater — The divers — Expert fishers — Tue guillemots — The 
great ausk — PuflSjig or sea parrot — The penguins — Darwin's de- 
scription of the "jackass" penguin — The cormorant — Trained 
to fish by some nations — The pelican- -Peculiar pouch for storing 
fish — The ganet — Assemble at breeding times in myriads on the 
bass rock — The hooper or wild swan — The great sea eagles — The 
osprey and its fishing habits — The tropic sea birds — The frigate 
bird — Its tyrannical treatment of the booby 323 — 351 

CHAPTER XIX. 

SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN. 

Seamen naturally superstitious — Incidents regarded as prodigies — 
Phantom ship — Power of raising tempests at sea by witchcraft — 
Incident to James VI. of Scotland — Wind pillars — Double sight 
— Apparitions at sea — Rats leaving a ship — Omens for good or 
evil — Crows as guides to mariners — The ancient mariner — Carry- 
ing dead bodies in ships — Good luck — Bad luck — Curious re- 
flections — Sea divinities of the ancient times 352 — 359 

CHAPTER XX. 

MARINE PRODIGIES. 

The Krasken a wonderful sea monster — Able to pull men-of-war to 
the bottom of the ocean — The sea serpent — Marvelous stories re- 



18 



CONTENTS. 

Page 
lated by oar sailors — Account forwarded to the admiralty — Fishes 
of the ribbon family may give rise to what are called sea serpents 
— Mermaids and women — Icelandic description of a mermaid — 
P. T. Barnum's famous exhibition — The manatee — The dugong 
— The stellerus — A mermaid shown in London in 1822 ,360 — 368 



CHAPTER XXI. 

MONSTERS OF THE DEEP— SEA DRAGONS, 

Gigantic reptiles inhabiting the ocean before the deluge — Huge sea 
lizards — Limestone rocks at Lyme Regis — Dragons in story books 
— Description of the sea lizard — Head like a crocodile — Numer- 
ous immense teeth — Enormous eyes — Body like that of a fish — 
The plesiosaurus — Peculiarities of this huge monster — Head like 
a lizard — Teeth of a crocodile — Neck of enormous length- — Body 
rounded like that of a marine turtle — Its habits described — The 
teleosaurus — The great pirate of the ocean — Armed to the teeth 
— Its enormous jaws — Able to swallow animals as large as an ox 
— The moesusaurus — Thought to be a crocodile 369 — 373 



CHAPTER XXII. 

SUBMARINE SCENERY— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE. 

The earth has its counterpart in the ocean — Glory of submarine 
scenery — In the tropics — China seas — Deepest colors of fishes and 
marine vegetation in the tropical seas — The Indian Ocean — 
Splendid colors of tropical fishes — Flowers of the ocean — Abun- 
dance and beauty of marine fauna — Wonders of coral scenery — 
Coput medusae, or basket fish — Anemones the loveliest ornaments 
of sea-gardens — Sea aue i ; ones a hungry class — Clearness of the 
TFateis of the red sea — Sea slug and sea cucumber — Waters of 
the North Sea remarkable for its transparency — Submarine forests 
and meadows — A sea covered with weeds — Enormous expanse of 
ihe Atlantic Ocean covered with vegetation — Seaweeds brought 
Jrom a great depth — The true seaweed — Beauty of smaller varie- 
ties — Marine plants vie with land-flowers — Seaweeds as food — 
Numerous applications of seaweeds 374 — 391 



CONTENTS. 19 

CHAPTER XXIII. 



THE BED OF THE OCEAN. DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS. 



Page 



Beauty of the tropical ocean — Average depth of the sea — Long a diffi- 
cult question — First determined by the U. S. navy — Mode of 
taking soundings — Brooks' sounding apparatus — The telegraph 
plateau — No currents below 3,000 feet — No decomposition at 
extreme depths — The sea a great nursery — Animal life at extreme 
depths — Preservxtioa of marine life — Conclusions of Professors 
Bailey and Ehrenburg — Deep sea dredging expeditions — Food of 
deep water animals — Limestone formations 392 — 412 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

PHENOMENA OP THE OCEAN. 

Optical illusions in Arctic seas — The mirage — Vivid description by 
Dr. Hayes — Aurora Borealis, or " Northern Daybreak" — Origin 
supposed to be electrical — Other luminous meteors — Halos and 
mock suns — The ice blink — Tide rip and Sea drift — Evaporation 
and precipica.tion — Formation of water-spouts — Perilous escape 
from a water-spout — Tornadoes and typhoons — The trade winds — 
Explanation of atmospheric currents — Their functions — The 
monsoon — Its beneficial effects — Hurricanes and cyclones — De- 
scription of the Bore and Egre — Sub-marine earthquakes and 
volcanoes — Islands rising from the sea — Cause — Red fog, or 
shower-dust , 413 — 444 

CHAPTER XXV. 

OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. 
Universal interest respecting the "ocean palaces" — Fulton's "Cler- 
mont " — Her size and rate of speed — Her first trip from New York 
to Albany — Terrific appearance — Contrasted with modern steam- 
ships — The Anchor Line of Steamships — The City of Rome — The 
largest passenger steamer afloat — Her remajkable dimensions — 
minute description of her interior 444 — 449 

CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 
Various modes of signaling — Field telegraph trains — Instruction of 
officers and men for the service — Branches taught — Number of 



20 CONTENTS 

Page 
Stations with equipments — Inauguration of the " Weather Bu- 
reau " — Co-operation of Agricultui'al and otlier societies — Rapid 
expansion of tlie work — Improvement of instruments — Superior 
to European systems — Mode of preparing the daily weather-map — 
Predicting rise and fall of great rivers — Great benefit to inter- 
state commerce — Storm signals described — Universal benefit of 
the Signal Service — International code of flag-signals — Incidents 
illustrating the service 449 — 475 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. 

Development of the system — Number of stations — Appliances — Patrol 
men on duty — Wreck of the "J. H. Hortzell" — The " Life Boat 
Coming " — A terrible journey — Relief at hand — The ' ' short- 
cut" — The frightful spectacle — The perilous descent — Prepar- 
tions for the rescue — The breeches-buoy — Life car attached — The 
crew saved — Wreck of the schooner "A. B. Goodman " — To the 
rescue — Sublime heroism displayed 475 — 498 

CHAPTER XXVIIL 

LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS. 

The "Pharos" — The oldest lighthouse — One of the seven wonders of 
the world — Colossal statue of Apollo »t Rhodes — Lighthouse on 
the Eddystone rocks — Originally built by Winstanley — His sad 
fate — The Bell-Rock — The " Skerry vore" on coast of Scotland — 
Minot's Lodge lighthouse — Modes of signaling in fogs — Coal or 
wood fires formerly used — Later adaptations — The electric light — 
Life in a lighthouse — Appointments to position of keeper — How 
obtained — The sea veteran. 498 — 113 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE. 

Frontispiece 2 

Aurora Borealis in Artie Regions. .417 

Albatross 138 

Archer Fish 242 

Arctic Chimaeridar 275 

Boats Stranded by the Tide 35 

Breaking up of Icebergs 78 

Boobie 336 

Common Carp . 242 

Cormorant 33G 

Cramp Fish 276 

Coral 106 

Drag Net 380 

Diver at Work 401 

Devil Fish 210 

Electric Eel 268 

Esquimaux Seal Hunters 131 

Frozen to Death 51 

Fleet of Medusa} 93 

Flying Fish 284 

Frog Fish 287 

Father Lasher 304 

Fight between Walrus and Polar 

Bears 194 

Frightful Encounter with Sharks. . . 180 

Gurnard 261 

Greenland Whale 154 

Gigantic Cuttle-Fish 205 

Globe Fish 220 

Great Auk 336 

Golden Penguin 1 38 

Hurricane 436 

Halibut 220 

Herring Fishing 247 

Ice Blink 421 

Luminosity of the Sea 40 

Launching the Life Boat 480 

Lamprey Eel 270 

Lump Fish 233 

Monsters before the Flood 371 



Montauk Lighthouse 505 

Mirage 414 

Northern Lights 75 

Ocean Shells 315 

Penguins 323 

Pipe Fish 276 

Piles Covered with Mussels 253 

Pearl-Divers at Work 113 

Pearl-Producing Shells 118 

Potwal 142 

Punt of the Marsh 253 

Skate Fish 295 

Sword Fish 308 

Sea Shells 309 

Swell at Sea 351 

Sticklebacks — Nest-building Fishes. 281 

Shark Fishing 173 

Stratagem of the White Bear 189 

Submarine Scenery of the Indian 

Ocean 375 

Sections of Ocean Cable 412 

Steamship City of Rome 445 

Ship in a Storm 462 

Spring Tide 35 

Ship under Full Sail 22 

Ship in the Ice 82 

Submarine Scenery 87 

Sponge-Divers at Work 120 

Sponge in its Natural State 124 

Sea Lions 138 

Tree Coral 98 

The Nautilus 197 

The Albatross 336 

Whiting Fish 242 

Wandering Chaetodon 233 

Walrus 186 

Water-spout, First and Second 

Stages 424 

Water-spout, Third Stage 429 

Water-spout in the Mediterranean..414 



||ii!i|il|iiiiliiil'i'i'liififm"|% nil "I I ||M||',j/i 





CHAPTER I. 

THE OCEAN— ITS LAWS AKD ELEMBirm. 

:N the beginning," the sacred historiaii informs 
us, " God created the heavens and the earth : 
and the earth was without form and void, and 
darkness was upon the face of the deep, and 
THE Spirit of God moved upon the face 
OF the waters." 
How wondrously solemn and grand are these inspired and 
holy words! What human imagination can fully realize 
their sublimity? In a few plain but soul-stirring sentences 
the great mystery of creative power is unfolded, and the 
mind gets bewildered in the contemplation of such vastness, 
beauty, and beneficence. We may exclaim with the royal 
psalmist, " Thou, even Thou, art Lord alone ; Thou hast 
made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host; 
the earth, and all things that are therein ; the seas, and all 
that are therein; and Thou preservest them all." 

On the second day, or generation, uprose progressively 
the fine fluids or waters of the firmament, and filled the blue 
ethereal void with a vital atmosphere. The third day, or 
generation, the waters more properly so called, or the 
grosser or more compact fluids of the general mass, were 
gathered together into the vast bed of the ocean, and dry 
land began to make its appearance. 

No subject, surely, could be more delightful than the study 
of the " world of waters " and its strange inhabitants, and 
there is none upon which the mind of man has been more 
absorbed in inquiry and research. 



24 ESSENTIAL TO THE EXISTENCE OF MAN. 

We never tire of the sea; it is a laboratory in whicli de- 
lightful processes are continually being wrought out for our 
admiration and use. Its flora and its fauna, its waves and 
its tides, its salts and its currents, all afford grand and profit- 
able themes of study and thought. But, as interesting as 
they are separately, and as wonderful, too, they are not half 
so marvelous as the offices which, with their aid, the sea 
performs in the physical economy of our planet. 

Viewed in this light, the ocean, its inhabitants, and its 
vapors, is a mechanism constructed by the All Wise, of per- 
fect workmanship. 

It is so fixed and true in its work that nothing can throw 
it out of gearing ; and yet its returns are so delicate that 
the task of preserving them is allotted to the minutest of 
sea dwellers, and to agents apparently the most subtle and 
fickle. 

They preserve its intricate relations, making its adjust- 
ments, in beauty and sublimity of effect, to vie with the 
heavens. These marvelous wonders proclaim, in songs di- 
vine, that they, too, are the work of holy fingers. 

We may but imperfectly represent this great bcdy of 
water and the many wonderful objects it contains, but any 
deficiencies may be supplied later, Avhen the open book of 
nature is read by thoughtful minds eager for knowledge. 

The ocean is essential to the existence of man and of all 
vegetation ; it is the great moderator and equalizer of terres- 
trial climates, purifying the atmosphere that we breathe, and 
sending off a perpetual supply of vapors, which condense 
into clouds, and are the sources of moisture and fertility to 
the soil. We must also think of the facilities afforded for an 
intercourse with distant nations. It has been remarked that 
contact with the ocean has unquestionably exercised a bene- 
ficial influence on the cultivation of the intellect and form- 
ation of the character of many nations, on the multiplication 
of those bonds which should unite the whole human race, on 



COMPOSITION OF WATER. 25 

the first knowledge of the true form of the earth, and on the 
pursuit of astronomy, and of all the mathematical and physi- 
cal sciences. 

Since Columbus was sent to unbar the gates of ocean, 
man has boldly ventured into intellectual as well as geo- 
graphical regions before unknown to him. How perfect. 
Infinite One, are all thy works, and how shortened our 
aspirations ! 

If the existing waters were increased only one-fourth of 
their present area, they Avould drown the earth, with the 
exception of some high mountains. If the volume of the 
ocean were augmented only by one-eighth, considerable por- 
tions of the present continents would be submerged, and the 
seasons would be changed' all over the face of the globe. 
Evaporation would be so much extended, that rains would 
fall continually, destroy the harvests, fruits, and flowers, and 
overturn the whole economy of nature. 

There is, perhaps, nothing more beautiful in our whole 
system than the process by which the fields are irrigated 
from the skies, the rivers are fed from the mountains, and 
the ocean restrained within bounds which it never can ex- 
ceed so long as that process continues on the present scale. 
The vapor raised from the sea by the sun floats Avherever it 
is lighter than the atmosphere ; condensed, it falls upon the 
earth in water. And what is water? It is composed of 
two important gases — oxygen and hydrogen — these being, 
probably, the two most abundant and essential substances in 
nature, as regards ourselves and our earth. 

These, when combined, become converted into vapor, 
many gallons of them in this state forming one small drop 
of fluid water. It is the simplest of combinations, and the 
compound most resembling a simple element ; the most uni- 
versal solvent at all temperatures; the most widely dis- 
tributed substance in nature ; the most powerful agent ; the 



26 SALTINESS OF THE OCEAN. 

most perfect representation of perpetual motion, penetrating 
everything, passing everywhere, always present, in sight or 
out of sight, and everywhere producing a marked eflfect. 
When it is remembered that a very large proportion of the 
w^eight of every living being, animal or vegetable, consists 
of water, and that for life to continue at all, an incessant 
supply of fresh fluid is required, the necessity of water will 
be fully understood. 

The Saltness which distinguishes the waters of the ocean 
is explained by the circumstance that chloride of sodium 
(common salt) and other dissolvable salts, which form essen- 
tial ingredients of the earth, are being constantly washed 
out of the soil and rocks by rain and springs, and carried 
down by the rivers ; and as the evaporation which feeds the 
rivers carries none of the dissolved matter back to the land, 
the tendency is to accumulate in the sea. We know that 
beds of rock-salt, of enormous thickness, form part of the 
crust of the globe; and we may infer that immense banks of 
salt exist in the bed of the deep. The uniformity of this 
saltness is preserved by the constant movement of the 
waters, caused by the regular and perpetual action of the 
winds. It has been said that if all the salts of the sea were 
spread equally over the northern half of this continent, it 
would cover the ground to the depth of one mile ! What 
force could move such a mass of matter on dry land ? Yet, 
the machinery of the ocean, of which it forms a part, is so 
wisely, marvelously, and wonderfully compensated, that the 
most gentle breeze that plays on its bosom — the tiniest in- 
sect that secretes solid matter for its sea-shell — is capable of 
putting it instantly in motion. Still, when solid and placed 
in a heap, all the mechanical contrivances of mankind, aided 
by the tremendous forces of all the steam and water power 
of the -world, could not move so much as an inch in centuries 
of this matter, which the sunbeam, the zephyr, and the in- 
fusorial insect keep in perpetual motion and activity. 



EFFECTS OF ITS SALTNESS. 27 

Why was the sea made salt ? If the sea were not made 
salt, the rays of the sun could not so readily penetrate it. 
This penetration of the waters by the sun's rays produces 
expansion. The force or dynamical power resulting from 
this expansion, or the spreading up and outward of the 
waters, increases the circulation of the currents. "Were tlie 
waters of the sea fresh instead of salt, we should probably 
have no such thing as a Gulf Stream nor marine climate ; 
the torrid zone would have been hotter and the frigid zone 
colder; and the climate of England would have vied with 
Labrador for inhospitality : all for the lack of the watery 
circulation. With no salts in the seas, evaporation, volume 
of our rivers, and the quantity of rain, would all have been 
different. The thunderbolt of the heavens, the sheet light- 
ning of the clouds, and the fitful flashes of the storm, all 
have their beginning principally in the salts of the sea. 

With a few exceptions, such as the Red Sea, Great Salt 
Lake, etc., the salts of the sea are everywhere the same. 
They could not be made so, were they not well shaken to- 
gether. The circulation of the currents of the sea is quite 
as perfect and wonderful as the circulation of the blood in 
our bodies. Evaporation in some waters is more rapid than 
in others. Water can hold only a given amount of salt in solu- 
tion. We cannot see that the quantity of salt deposits is 
increasing. It reasonably follows from all this that there 
must be a system of circulation in the waters, wliereb}' an 
equilibrium is produced, making each and all of the waters of 
the same degree of saltness. The currents which produce 
these results do not flow from chance, but in accordance 
with physical laws, assisting to maintain the order and pre- 
serve the harmony which is so apparent in every depart- 
ment of God's handiwork. 

The coral islands of the Pacific were built up of matter 
which a certain kind of animal quarried from the ocean. These 
rivers of the sea become the hod-carriers of the little animal. 



28 CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN. 

If the currents of the sea were not employed to carry off 
from this animal the waters that have been emptied by it of 
their lime, and to bring to it others supplied with more, it is 
apparent that it would have died for want of something to 
eat long before its work was completed. But for the benign 
current, the emptied drop of water would have remained, 
not only as the grove of the little builder, but as a monu- 
ment recording a monstrous failure in the beautiful system 
of terrestial adaptations. 

It may be reasonably concluded that the marine animals, 
whose secretions are so constituted as to alter the specific 
gravity of the water, to disturb its equilibrium, to originate 
currents in the ocean, and to control its circulation, are not 
in any place nor doing this work by accident. Nature is 
sublime and perfect in adaptation through all her domain. 

Currents, which exercise so great an influence on the cir- 
culation of the waters, and in producing remarkable changes 
in the form of coasts, are described as constant, periodical, 
and variable ; the two latter classes being determined chiefly 
by the winds and tides. The first motion of the ocean 
waves is derived either from the attraction of the sun or 
moon, or from w^inds which blow over the surface of the 
waters; the second arises from the sun, which directly 
through its heat, and indirectly by scorching dry winds, 
produces evaporation, to a great extent, of the parts most 
exposed to its influence ; and by its similar action on the 
atmosphere, causes a transference of this vapor to remote 
latitudes, where it descends as rain, and by destroying the 
equilibrium of the ocean, gives rise to currents. The prin- 
cipal currents of the ocean are four, two warm, and two 
cold ; these originate, the former among the islands of the 
Archipelago and in the G-ulf of Mexico, and the latter in the 
Arctic and Southern Oceans. 

The most important and best known of ocean currents, the 
Gulf Stream — the river in the ocean, one of the most mar- 



THE O ULF STREAM. 29 

velous things In this worhi of waters — derives its name 
from the Gulf of Mexico. The general direction of this 
stream is in the arc of a great circle, towards England, by 
which it is divided; one branch, passing to the west and 
north, reaches the coast of Norway, and can be perceived on 
the southern borders of Iceland and Spitzbergen. The 
Avaters are of a deep indigo blue, and are so distinctly 
marked that their line of junction with the common sea- 
water may be traced by the eye. 

The existence of the Gulf Stream can also be readily as- 
certained by means of a thermometer, the temperature be- 
ing so elevated. It is this warmth which tempers and 
softens the climate of all Western Europe. It is the influ- 
ence of the Gulf Stream upon the climate that makes Ireland 
the Emerald Island of the sea, and clothes the shores of 
England with evergreen robes ; while in the same latitude, 
on our side of the Atlantic, the shores of Labrador are 
fast bound in fetters of ice. How wonderful is this benefi- 
cent operation of Providence, when we think that this warm 
stream felt on England's shores, which are thus bathed with 
water heated under a tropical sun, comes from a distance of 
four thousand miles ! Nor is its influence thus circum- 
scribed. In mid-winter, off the inclement coasts between 
Cape Hatteras and New Foundland, ships, when beaten 
back from their harbors by fierce north-westers, loaded 
down with ice, and in danger of founding, turn their 
prows to the east, and seek relief and comfort in the Gulf 
Stream. In high northern latitudes, after having run three 
thousand miles towards the north, it still preserves even in 
winter the heat of summer. With this temperature, it 
spreads itself out for thousands of square miles over the 
cold waters around, and covers the ocean with a mantle of 
warmth that serves so much to mitigate in Europe the 
rigors of winter. 

With a breadth of about fifty miles in its narrowest por- 



30 TEE GULF STREAM. 

tions, the Gulf Stream has a velocity, at times, of five miles 
an hour, pouring on like an immense torrent. 

The cause of these phenomenal ocean river currents, up 
to the present time, is only conjectured, and the nature and 
extent of this work will hardly warrant any extended theo- 
retical discussion. 

Each current seems to have a circulation of its own, i.e., 
an upper and lower stratum. In the warm currents, the 
upper portion only is warm, while beneath runs a counter 
cold current. In the cold currents, the order of stratums is 
reversed. 

There is a constant tendency of polar waters toward the 
tropics, and of tropical waters toward the poles. 

It is a custom often practiced by seafaring people to 
throw a bottle overboard, having inside a paper, stating the 
time and place at which it is done. These minute little 
voyagers leave no trace behind them, and therefore their 
routes cannot be exactly ascertained, though we can approx- 
imate closely, knowing where they were cast and where they 
were found. Charts have been prepared showing the routes 
of over one hundred bottles, by drawing straight lines from 
the starting to returning point, with the time elapsed. From 
this it appears that the waters from every quarter of the 
Atlantic tend towards the Gulf of Mexico and its stream. 
Good circumstantial evidence exists to prove that bottles 
cast overboard in the Gulf Stream have performed the entire 
tour of that current. 

Other currents as well as the Gulf Stream are utilized in 
a similar manner. As an instance of this we quote the in- 
structions of Mr. G. M. Robeson, Secretary of our Navy, to 
Capt. Francis Hall, of the Polaris expedition in 1869, as fol- 
lows ; " To keep the Government as well informed as possible 
of your progress, you will, after leaving Cape Dudley Digges^ 
throw overboard daily, as open water or drifting ice may 
permit, a bottle or small copper cylinder, closely sealed, con- 



GULF STREAM UTILIZED BY NAVIGATORS. 31 

taining a paper, stating date, position, and such other facta 
as you may deem interesting. For this purpose you will 
have prepared papers, containing a request, printed in sev- 
eral languages, that the linder transmit it by the most direct 
route to the Secretary of the Navy, U. S. of A." 

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, a Dutch brig, 
pursued by the French corsair. Phoenix, was overhauled be- 
tween Tangier and Tarifa, and seemed to be sunk by a sin- 
gle broadside ; but in place of going down, the brig, being 
freighted with a cargo of oil and alcohol, floated between 
the two currents, and, drifting toward the west, finally ran 
aground in the neighborhood of Tangier, more than twelve 
miles from the spot where she had disappeared under the 
waves. She had therefore floated that distance, driven by 
the action of the under current, in a direction opposite to 
that of the surface current. 

Recent invention has wrought out an improved plan of 
warming houses in winter by hot water. A furnace heats 
the water; this heated water and steam is conveyed by 
pipes to the place to be warmed. 

This convenient mode of warming our ofiices and dwell- 
ings was probably suggested by two things : first, because 
of its utility ; and, second, the fact that we have a similar 
heating apparatus in nature, in the warm waters of the Gulf 
of Mexico. The heater is the torrid zone ; the Gulf and the 
Caribbean Sea are the boilers ; the Gulf current is the means 
of conveyance ; from New Foundland to Europe is the reser- 
voir. According to Maury ^ " the quantity of heat discharged 
over the Atlantic by the Gulf Stream in a winter's day 
would be sufiicient to raise the whole column of atmosphere 
that rests upon France and the British Islands from the 
freezing point to summer heat." 

How benign is the influence of this wonderful stream, 
and how a contemplation of it leads one to revere its creator. 

** He treadeth upon the waves of the sea, and is seen in 



32 INFLUENCE UPON CLIMATE. 

the waters of the deep. Yea, He calleth for its waters, and 
poureth them out on the face of the earth." 

Investigation as to the causes oi the severe storms raging 
so frequently in certain portions of the Atlantic, and which 
have proved so disastrous to navigation, led to the conclusion 
that they were caused by the irregularity between the tem- 
perature of the Grulf Stream and neighboring regions, both 
in the air and water. " To use a sailor's expression, the 
Gulf Stream is the great ' weather breeder ' of the North 
Atlantic." It is a " storm fiend " that out-tops the " stormy 
capes," and out-vies the furious storms of the North Pacific 
and China Seas. 

Storms from the right and left of the Gulf Stream break in 
upon it; and, turning about, rush along with it, leaving be- 
hind a steamy mist, caused by the cold water and warm air 
coming in contact, to mark its course. 

Formerly the Gulf Stream exercised a greater infiuence 
npon commerce than it does at the present day. Up to the 
last century, the navigator guessed as much as he calculated 
the place of his ship. 

For three centuries navigators had been crossing and re- 
crossing this Gulf Stream daily, without using it as a means 
of giving them their longitude, or warning them of their ap- 
proach to this continent. 

Before the warmth of the Gulf Stream was known, a voy- 
age from Europe in winter to portions of our own. coast was 
exceedingly perilous. Gales and snow storms would be met 
which would set at naught the seaman's skill. His vessel be- 
comes incrusted with ice and her crew benumbed and helpless. 
She remains obedient only to her helm, which almost in- 
stinctively guides her to the Gulf Stream. She crosses its 
magic boundary and is embraced by its healing presence. 
The ice vanishes from her garments ; the weary sailor laves 
in its healing properties, being invigorated by its genial 
warmth. He is now ready to make another efibrt to enter 



EFFECTS OF CURRENTS UPON NAVIGATION. 33 

his port, perhaps to be as rudely driven back again. But 
each breathing" spell renews his energies, until at last he 
may enter his haven in safety, though many, in this terrible 
contest, may sink to rise no more 

Other currents as Avell as the Gulf Stream materially af- 
fect navigation. While an intimate knowledge of them is 
necessary, in order to avoid the danger of mistaking the 
true position of a vessel, its progress to port may be facili- 
tated by falling in with a local stream, or steering clear of 
it, according as its direction is favorable or adverse. 

The effect of currents was perceived long before anything 
was known of their direction and velocity, and Columbus 
was strengthened in his belief that land might be reached 
across the Atlantic westward, by substances which had 
drifted from that quarter. After the commencement of his 
great undertaking, when, day after day, nothing had been 
seen but a shoreless horizon, and hope had nearly expired 
in his own breast, while his crew were on the verge of open 
rebellion, the effect of the oceanic currents restored his con- 
fidence and allayed their clamors. A branch of thorn, with 
berries on it, appeared ; a reed was picked up, and a stafF 
artificially carved — intimations that an inhabited land lay 
before the adventurers, which was at length revealed to their 
gaze, and terminated forever the mystery which had rested 
upon the western flood. 

A Tide is a w^ave of the w^hole ocean, w^hich is elevated 
to a certain height, and then sinks after the manner of a 
common wave. The interval between the two positions 
forms the tide. The principal cause is the attraction of the 
sun and moon, the latter being the more potent agent. The 
sea rises or flows, as it is called, by degrees, about six hours ; 
it remains stationary about a quarter of an hour ; and then 
retires or ebbs during another six hours, to flow again after 
a brief repose. Thus every day, or the period elapsing 
between successive returns of the moon to the meridian of a 



34 TIDES. 

place — which is twenty-four hours, fifty minutes and a half — 
the sea ebbs and flows twice, much less, indeed, towards the 
poles than within the tropics, where the waters lie under 
the direct influence of the lunar attraction. It is in the 
southern hemisphere that the tidal wave originates, and 
from thence moves northward, influenced in its direction by 
the motion of the earth. Almost excluded from the North- 
ern Pacific by the barrier of islands and coral reefs which 
stretch across from Australia nearly to South America, the 
effect of the tides, excepting on the w^est coast of that con- 
tinent, is little felt in that ocean. In the Indian Ocean, 
compressed between Africa on the north and Australia and 
Sumatra on the east, it bursts in full strength on the shores 
of Hindoostan. In the narrow channel of the Atlantic the 
tidal wave progresses northward with great rapidity, and on 
the shores both of Europe and America, producing, as in 
Southern India, the Bore, which is described in the chapter 
on the " Phenomena of the Ocean," 

The highest floods and the loAvest ebbs occur at the 
period of new and full moon, near the equinoxes, in March 
and September, when the moon is nearest the earth. 

Winds have also a powerful influence over the tidal cur- 
rents, especially in narrow seas, keeping them back when 
blowing from an opposite quarter, and quickening their flow 
when pursuing the same direction ; but the motion of the 
water in the tide-wave is totally unlike that in an ordinary 
surface-wave, such as the wind produces ; and it diff"ers, also, 
in affecting the whole depth of the ocean equally from the 
bottom to the surface, while the wand-waves, even in the 
most violent storms, agitate it to a very trifling depth. In 
the deep water of the ocean, the tidal-wave does not exceed 
twelve feet in height. 

The ancients knew that the time of high water, and also 
the height of the tide, were in some way connected with the 
age of the moon. It was the illustrious Sir Isaac Newton 




BOATS STRANDED BY THE TIDE. 




^ V- '^-^ F*" ' "■-- "" ^^£^^•^1^-^^' ^ 




SPRING TIDE. 



36 WIND- WA VE8. 

who made the first attempt to explain the phenomena of 
the tides, on the principle of the influence of gravitation, 
the grand agent in the movement of the universe. 

What are called wind-waves are small at their first origin, 
commencing with a mere ripple, or, as the sailors term it, a 
" cat's-paw." But each wave, as it advances, acquires in- 
creased height by the continued pressure of the wind. Thus 
it is that the larger waves are not developed in narrow seas, 
or where the wind blows off the land ; they require breadth 
of water and continued pressure for their formation. The 
greatest waves known are those off the Cape of Good Hope, 
under the influence of a north-west gale (the storm-wind of 
that region), Avhich drifts the swell around the Cape, after 
traversing obliquely the vast area of the South Atlantic. In 
such gales, the waves attain a height of above forty feet, so 
that two ships in the trough of the sea, with such a wave 
between them, lose sight of one another from their decks. 
Ofi" Cape Horn, also, the waves reach upwards of thirty feet 
in height. In our own seas, they rarely exceed eight or 
nine feet. 

The crossing of waves, instead of dividing the water into 
parallel ridges, causes the pitching and rolling so distressing 
to passengers and trying to vessels. When more than two 
series of waves cross one another, they give rise to the term 
chopping seas. 

Whatever relates to the color of the ocean is a matter on 
which many and various opinions have been expressed. 
Very curious is the statement of Martyn, one of the early voy- 
agers, attributing these changes in the sea to the color of the 
skies : " If," he says, " the sky be clear, the sea looks as blewe 
as saphire ; if it is covered somewhat with clouds, the sea is 
as greene as an emeralde ; if there be a foggy sunshine, it 
looketh yellow ; if it be quite darke, like unto the color of 
indigo ; in stormy and cloudy weather, like blacke sope, or 
exactly like unto the color of blacke leade." 



VARIETY OF COLORS OF THE SEA. 37 

The Greenland sea varies in color from ultramarine blue 
to olive green, differences which have been found, on exam- 
ining the water, were due to the presence of innumerable 
minute animals. The red, brown, and white patches of the 
Pacific and Indian Oceans, are attributed to the presence of 
swarms of animalcuhe, and the colors of the Red and Yellow 
Seas to matters of vegetable origin. On both sides of the 
island of Ceylon, during the south-west monsoon, a broad 
expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter 
than brick-dust ; and this is confined to a space so distinct, 
that a line seems to separate it from the green water which 
flows on either side. On examining some of this water with 
a microscope, it proved to be filled with animalculse, prob- 
ably similar to those which have been noticed near the 
shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted 
a name to the Vermillion Sea off the coast of California. 

Captain Kingman passed through a tract of water twenty- 
three miles in breadth, and of unknown length, so full of 
minute (and some not very minute) phosphorescent animal 
organisms, as to present the aspect at night of a boundless 
plain covered with snow. Some of the animals were ser- 
pents six inches in length, of a transparent jelly-like nature. 
This appearance is noticed by Dr. Collingwood as a '' milky 
sea," the whole surface composed of a white fluid-like milk. 
The contrast of the ocean, thus colored, with the dark sky, 
is very striking. 

This proceeds from a great variety of marine organisms, 
some soft and gelatinous, and some minute shelly animals. 
They mostly shine Avhen excited by a blow or by agitation 
of the water, as when a fish darts along or oar dashes, or, 
in the wake of a ship, when the Avater closes on its track. 
In the latter case are often seen what appear to be lamps 
of light rising from under the keel, and floating out to the 
surface, apparently of many inches in diameter. One of the 
most remarkable of these luminous creatures is a species of 



38 LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 

shell animals with mufF-shaped bodies upwards of an inch in 
length, which, when thrown down on deck, burst into a glow 
so strong as to appear like lumps of white-hot iron. 

There are few subjects of study more interesting than 
the luminous appearance presented by the sea under various 
circumstances. That the sea, the great extinguisher of fire, 
should be turned into flame — that the darkness of night 
should be illuminated by the luminous glow which bathes 
every ripple and breaks over every wave — that globes of 
light should traverse the ocean, or that lightning flashes 
should coruscate no less in the billows of the sea than in the 
clouds of the air — are all facts Avhich seize on the imagina- 
tion. Nor is the interest lessened by the knowledge that 
all these phenomena are produced by animals whose home 
is in the great waters ; that not only do the fiery bodies of 
large animals give out steady patches of light, but that of 
the myriad animalculge with which the sea teems, like motes 
in a sunbeam, each contributes its tiny scintillation, the ag- 
gregate forming a soft and lovely radiance. 

A vivid description of a luminous sea is given by an emi' 
nent French naturalist, as follows : 

" It exhibited to us in all its splendor the glorious phe- 
nomena of its phosphorescence. For more than an hour the 
waters around us seemed to be kindled into a blaze of light, 
as if they had borrowed some of the hidden fires of Strom- 
boli. The waves, as they broke along the rocky shores of 
Sicily, encircled it with a glowing band of light, Avhile every 
projecting cliff was circled with a wreath of fire. Our boat 
seemed as if it were opening for itself a passage through 
some glowing and fused liquid, while in its wake it left a 
long track of light, each stroke of the oar brightening the 
bosom of the waves with a broad silver gleam. The water 
that was taken up in a bucket presented the appearance of 
molten lead, as it was poured back into the sea. Every- 
where over this brilliant surface of calm light, myriads of 



LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 39 

dazzling green sparks and globes of fire were flashing, 
quivering, and dying amidst the undulations of the waves, 
and these sparks and globes of fire were so many living 
beings. At certain times of the year these microscopical 
beings acquire the property of emitting light at each mus- 
cular contraction ; and hence every movement in these ani- 
malcule is made apparent by a luminous flash." 

Mr. Edmonds alludes to the luminous Avaters frequently 
witnessed in Mount's Bay : 

" On these occasions, particularly when the night is dark, 
if a fish rise from the calm water, a most brilliant and beau- 
tiful effect is produced. Were you, from a boat, to look 
down into the sea while fishes were darting to and fro, their 
paths would be luminous, and the deep would be traversed 
by streams of light as bright and beautiful as those of stars 
shooting through the sky. If you draw in your fishing-line, 
it will appear as a line of fire, and the fish at the end of it 
like a ball of fire coming near you. A net suspended in 
the sea appears * like a brilliant lacework of fire,' and the 
fishes may be seen carefull}^ avoiding it. When fishermen 
by night wish to know whether any fish are near, they stamp 
on the bottom of the boat, and instantly, if there are any 
beneath, they will be seen darting away in all directions." 

To these observations may be added the interesting de- 
scription of this phenomenon, as witnessed in the vicinity of 
the Plata by the distinguished Darwin : 

" One very dark night the sea presented a very beautiful 
and singular appearance. There was a fresh breeze, and 
every part of the surface which, during the day, is seen as 
foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove be- 
fore her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her 
wake she was followed by a milky train. As far as the eye 
reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky 
above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid 
flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the 



ilii! iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Mill iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiin 111 wm mm "f iipiii wwm 




PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN. 41 

heavens. Farther south, the sea is seldom phosphorescent, 
probably owing to the scarcity of organic beings in that 
part, of the ocean. The same torn and irregular particles of 
gelatinous matter seem, in the Southern as Avell as in the 
Northern Hemisphere, to be the common cause of this phe- 
nomenon. The particles were so minute as easily to pass 
through fine gauze, yet many were distinctly visible by the 
naked eye. The water, Avlien placed in a tumbler and agi- 
tated, gave out sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass 
scarcely ever was luminous. All these particles retain a 
certain degree of irritability. My observations gave a dif- 
ferent result. Having used the net one night, I allowed it 
to become partially dry, and twelve hours after, having 
occasion to use it again, I found the whole surface sparkle 
as brightly as when first taken out of the water. It does 
not appear probable, in this case, that the particles could 
have remained so long alive. When the waves scintillate with 
bright green sparks, it is generally ownng to minute shell- 
covered animals; but there can be no doubt that very many 
other pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent. The 
phenomenon is the result of the decomposition of the or- 
ganic particles, by which process the ocean becomes purified." 

Having briefly glanced at some of the most important 
features of the world of waters, it may not be amiss to call 
attention to some of its principal divisions, and these are 
five: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic 
Oceans. Although no one portion is completely set off from 
the rest, it has been found desirable to arrange it into these 
divisions. 

The extreme breadth of the Atlantic system is about five 
thousand miles, and its narrowest part about sixteen hun- 
dred miles. The extent of its shores is immense — above 
fifty thousand miles — several thousand more than the Pacific 
and Indian Oceans combined. The Atlantic, from its relation 
to civilized countries, and as the most frequented highway 



42 BISGOVERY OF THE PACIFIG. 

of communication for commerce, is regarded as the most im- 
portant, and is, consequently, much better known than the 
Pacific. Its waters wash the eastern coasts of North, and 
South America, and the western coasts of Europe and 
Africa. Its northern and southern extremities are the Polar 
waters. 

The Mediterranean Sea, one of the arms or tributaries of 
the Atlantic, with which it is connected by the Straits of 
Gibraltar, is one of the greatest inlan'' seas of the world. 
Its shores Avere the successive seats of the governments 
of the earth for thousands of years. It was the central 
ocean of the Ancients, on which all the early discoveries 
and hardships of navigation were experienced. 

The Pacific was discovered by Balboa, in 1513, not quite 
four hundred years ago. The causes that led up to this im- 
portant discovery, and the effect it produced upon what 
was then called the Old World, are matters of common his- 
tory, and need not be related nor discussed here. As a high- 
way of commerce, it does not compare with its sister, the 
Atlantic, though each decade increases its importance in this 
respect ; for the light of the Gospel, and the rigor of modern 
research, and commercial enterprise, is gradually but surely 
opening up a lively correspondence and communication be- 
tween the civilized inhabitants of North and South America 
bounding its eastern shores, and the benighted hosts of Asia 
on its west. 

The Indian Ocean, an arm of the Pacific, and embraced 
by Africa on the west, Asia on the north, and Australia on 
the east, possesses a remarkable interest, inasmuch as the 
earliest voyage on record, made by the navy of Solonic, was 
taken on its romantic waters. 




CHAPTER II. 




THE FROZEN OCEAN. 

^THOSE of us who pass our days in a sun-favored 
and temperate portion of the earth, with 
every comfort we could desire around us, the 
green face of nature only covered at brief 
wintry intervals with a mantle of snow, 
and a wide-spread fertility attesting the 
bounty of an indulgent Providence, cannot realize the dark 
and repelling picture of the frozen North. 

We can only fancy, with a shudder, a winter of nine 
months reigning over the boundless regions of ice ; and we 
might wonder how human nature is able to support such an 
intensity of cold with its attendant privations, did we not 
know that the inhabitants of this bleak climate, accustomed 
to hardships which Ave could not endure, pursue an exist- 
ence which we might consider miserable, but which theyf 
active, self-reliant, and with but few Avants to satisfy, except 
the cravings of hunger, are contented with, and Avould not, 
probably, exchange for Avhat we might consider a hap- 
pier lot. 

It is astonishing what amount of cold can be endured by 
the human frame. Dr. Kane, one of the Arctic navigators, 
records, 7th of February, 1851, a frost three degrees below 
the freezing-point of mercury ! Only a few degrees above 
this, the creAv of the ship engaged in the expedition per- 
formed a farce, called " The Mysteries and Miseries of New 
York." One of the sailors had to perform the part of a dam- 
sel with bare arms, and when a cold flat-iron, which was 



44 HUMAN END URANCE OF GOLD. 

employed in the play, touched his skin, the sensation was 
like that of burning with a hot iron. On the 22d of the 
same month (Washington's birthday), there was another 
theatrical performance. "The ship's thermometer outside 
was at 46°; inside, the audience and actors, by aid of lungs, 
lamps, and hangings, got as high as 30°, only sixty-two de- 
grees below the freezing-point, perhaps the lowest atmos- 
pheric record of a theatrical representation. It was a 
strange thing altogether. The condensation was so exces- 
sive, that we could barely see the performers ; they walked 
in a cloud of vapor. Any extra vehemence of delivery was 
accompanied by volumes of smoke. Their hands steamed ; 
when an excited Thespian took off his coat, it smoked like a 
dish of potatoes." 

As another instance of extreme cold in these fearful re- 
gions, it may be mentioned how, under a temperature of 
15° below" zero, Captain M'Clure, one of the most adven- 
turous of Arctic explorers, spent the night of the I3th of 
October, 1851, on the ice, amid prowling bears, and that 
without food or amunition, his only guide being a pocket 
compass, which, however, the darkness, aided by mist and 
drift, rendered useless. He, nevertheless, wiled away the 
time by sleeping three hours on " a famous bed of soft 
dry snow," and by wandering ten miles by the crow's flight, 
over a surface so rugged with ice and snow as to endanger 
his limbs. It was at the close of a walking expedition of 
nine days, on a very short allowance of food and water, he 
accomplished his desire of reaching the winter quarters of 
the expedition, so as to ensure a warm meal ready for his 
men when they arrived at their destination. 

Edward Parry mentions his experience of Arctic rigors 
thus : " Our bodies appeared to adapt themselves so readily 
to the climate, that the scale of our feelings was soon re- 
duced to a lower standard than ordinary, so that after being 
some days in a temperature of 15° or 20°, it felt quite 



EFFECTS OF THE COLD. 45 

mild and comfortable when the thermometer rose to zero — 
that is, when it was 32° below the freezing-point !" One 
of Dr. Kane's crew put an icicle into his mouth to crack it, 
when the thermometer was at 28°; one fragment stuck 
to his tongue, and two to his lips, each taking off a bit of 
skin, burning it off, if this term might be used in an inverse 
sense. The same writer observes, " that at 25° the 
beard, eyebrows, eyelashes, &c., acquire a delicate, white, 
and perfectly enveloping cover of venerable hoar-frost. The 
moustache and under-lip form pendulous beads of dangling 
ice. Put out your tongue, and it instantly freezes to this 
icy crusting, and a rapid effort and some hand-aid will be 
required to liberate it. Your chin has a trick of freezing to 
your upper jaw by the biting aid of your beard. My eyes 
have often been so glued as to show that even a wink may 
be unsafe." 

One day Dr. Kane walked himself into "a comfortable 
perspiration " with the thermometer seventy degrees below 
freezing-point ! A breeze sprang up, and instantly the sen- 
sation of cold was intense. His beard, coated before with 
icicles, seemed to bristle with increased stiffness, and an un- 
fortunate hole in the back of his mitten " stung like burning 
coal." On the next day, while walking, his beard and mous- 
tache became one solid mass of ice.* Inadvertently he put 
out his tongue, and it instantly froze fast to his lip. This 
being nothing new, costing only a smart pull and a bleeding 
afterwards, he put up his mittened hands to *' blow hot," and 
thaw the unruly member from its imprisonment. Instead of 
succeeding, his mitten was itself a mass of ice in a moment; 
it fastened on the upper side of his tongue, and flattened it 
out like a batter-cake between the two disks of a hot griddle. 
It required all his care with the bare hands to release it, and 
then not without laceration. 

Such is the relation of the rigors experienced by Arctic 
navigators in the frozen regions. The Esquimaux, on the 



46 EARLY ABCTIG VOYAGERS. 

approach of winter, cut the hard ice into tall square blocks, 
with which they construct their dwellings. They pass their 
nights covered with bear and seal skins, near a stove or 
lamp, every portion of the hut being closed against the 
piercing cold. Their provisions are often frozen so hard as 
to require to be cut with a hatchet. The whole of the inside 
of the hut sometimes becomes lined with a thick crust of 
ice ; and, if a window is opened for a moment, the moisture 
of the confined air it immediately precipitated in the form 
of a shower of snow. 

Without interest and adventure to stimulate the energies 
and excite the curiosity of mankind, these gloomy regions 
might not, probably, have been penetrated by the brave 
seamen who have imperilled their lives amidst those icy 
waters or on the inhospitable coasts, and whose explorations 
have developed and tested more heroism and skill than, 
perhaps, the exploration and discovery of all the rest of the 
world since the age of Columbus. But for these Arctic voy- 
agers, we should have been ignorant of the strange and 
wonderful countries of the North, and their inhabitants. 
These voyages originated in an attempt to discover a shorter 
passage to India across the Northern seas. In 1553, an ex- 
pedition of three vessels for this purpose left England. The 
resiilts to two of these ships were most disastrous; the 
crews, seventy in number, and the commander of the expe- 
dition, Sir Hugh Willoughby, being frozen to death. Since 
this period, upwards of a hundred expeditions have been 
made in search of the North-west Passage — that is, a navi- 
gable channel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, round 
the northern margin of America. Among the heroic leaders 
of these expeditions are the conspicuous names of Parry, 
John and James Ross, Back, Franklin, Beecher, Austin, Kel- 
lett, Osborne, Collinson, M'Clure, Rae, Simpson, M'Clin- 
tock, Hayes, Kane, Hall, and other famous men. 

The fate of the unfortunate Sir John Franklin, one of the 



MODERN EXPEDITIONS. 47 

bravest and boldest of the Arctic explorers, is well known : 
how, in 1845, when nearly sixty years of age, he started on 
his last and fatal voyage to the frozen regions, with the 
ships "Erebus" and '^Terror." The vessels were seen three 
months afterwards, but for eleven years their fate remained 
a mystery, although twenty expeditions were sent, at the 
cost of a million sterling, to discover traces of the missing 
crews. In 1857 the "Fox," commanded by the gallant 
M'Clintock, was fitted out, at the expense of Lady Franklin, 
on the same mission ; and in 1859, the sad end of Franklin 
and his associates was ascertained. The " Erebus" and 
" Terror" had been beset by ice and abandoned in 1848; the 
commander himself had died the year previously (11th of 
June), and was thus spared the agony of witnessing and 
sharing the sufferings of his crews, all of whom had, it is 
presumed, perished on those fearful shores. Many sad and 
interesting relics of the Franklin expedition Avere recovered 
and brought home. The discoverers obtained their infor- 
mation in a remarkable manner : lying amongst some stones, 
which had evidently fallen off from the top of a pillar, was 
a small tin case, deposited on this spot by the crews of the 
abandoned vessels and containing a record of the long-lost 
expedition. 

It was in one of the attempts in search of Franklin and 
his companions that the discovery of the North-west Passage 
was effected in 1850, by the successful though perilous ex- 
ertions of Captain M'Clure, who had shared in the Arctic 
expedition of Captain Back in 1836, and in the voyage of 
James Ross in 1848. Captains M'Clure and Collinson 
were sent out in the "Investigator" and the "Enterprise." 
The course of the latter vessel was chiefly in open waters, 
close to our shores; but M'Clure steered in a more northern 
route, and encountered fearful perils from the ice in those 
storm-bound regions. During four years he underwent 
trials and exposures, which would have daunted many a 



48 DISCO VEE T OF THE NORTH- WEST PASSAGE. 

navigator, however accustomed to these dangers. His ves- 
sel, several times beset by ice, was at length so firmly 
locked in, that M'Clure, seeing no hope of release, decided 
upon sending thirty of his crew to make their way home- 
wards ; some by way of North America, up the Mackenzie 
River, and the others by Cape Spencer, Beechey Island ; 
while he himself, with the remainder of the officers and 
crew, would stay by the ship, spend a fourth winter in those 
dreary regions, and then, if not relieve^, endeavor to retreat 
upon Lancaster Sound. Such was the arrangement, when 
an incident occurred that thrilled their hearts with joy. 
The captain and his first lieutenant were walking near the 
ship conversing, when they perceived a figure rapidly ap- 
proaching them from the rough ice at the entrance of the 
bay. When about a hundred yards from them, he shouted 
and gesticulated, but without enabling them to guess who 
he might be. At length he approached, and to their aston- 
ishment thus announced himself: "I am Lieutenant Pym, 
late of the 'Herald,' and now in the 'Resolute.' Captain 
Kellett is in her at Denby Island." Lieutenant Pym had 
come from Melville Island, in consequence of one of Captain 
Kellett's parties having discovered an inscription left by 
M'Clure on Parry's famous sandstone rock in Winter Harbor. 

The ship was abandoned, and the commander and his 
crew, released from a very perilous position, returned to 
England in 1854. Although he was obliged to leave his 
ship blocked in mountains of ice, and had to walk and sledge 
over hundreds of miles of ice, to reach other ships which 
had entered the frozen regions in the opposite direction, 
still, he had water under Mm all the way, and was thus the 
first commander of a vessel who really solved the problem 
of the famous North-west Passage. 

The Arctic and Antarctic Circles are the boundaries 
which separate the frigid and temperate zones. At the 
poles themselves there is only one day of six months, during 



FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS. 49 

■which the sun never sets, and one night of six months, when 
the sun never rises. At the Arctic Circle the greatest 
length of continuous light is twenty-four hours, at the sum- 
mer solstice or Midsummer's day ; while, at the same time, 
at the Antarctic Circle, the sun is twenty-four hours below 
the horizon, and the reverse at the opposite seasons of the 
year. 

The coldness of the Polar regions arises from the fact of 
the rays of the sun striking the earth obliquely, as, at the 
equator, the heat is produced by the sun's rays falling upon 
the earth vertically. In the Arctic Ocean — that part of the 
universal sea which surrounds the North Pole — lie the most 
fearful dangers which can beset the seaman on his perilous 
course, arising from floating ice, the ship being frozen in, the 
fogs, the blinding snow, the darkness, the storms, and the 
tides and currents, comparatively unknown, which he has to 
encounter. 

The following thrilling incident, described in the West- 
minster Review, is one of the most fearful histories that 
have been recorded : 

" One serene evening in the middle of August, 1775, Cap- 
tain Warrens, the master of a Greenland whale-ship, found 
himself becalmed among an immense number of icebergs, in 
about 77'-* of north latitude. On one side, and within 
a mile of his vessel, these were of an immense height and 
closely wedged together, and a succession of snow-covered 
peaks appeared behind each other as far as the eye could 
reach, showing that the ocean was completely blocked up in 
that quarter, and that it had probably been so for a long 
period of time. He did not feel altogether satisfied with his 
situation; but, there being no wind, he could not move one 
way or the other, and he therefore kept a strict watch, know- 
ing that he would be safe as long as the icebergs continued in 
their respective places. About midnight the wind rose to 
a gale, accompanied by thick showers of snow, while a sue- 



50 FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS. 

cession of thundering, grinding, and crashing noises gave 
fearful evidence that the ice was in motion. The vessel re- 
ceived violent shocks every moment, for the haziness of the 
atmosphere prevented those on board from discovering in 
what direction the open water lay, or if there was actually 
any at all on either side of them. The night was spent in 
tacking as often as any case of danger happened to present 
itself, and in the morning, the storm abating, he found, to his 
great joy, that his ship had not sustained any serious injury. 
He remarked with surprise that the accumulated icebergs, 
which had the preceding evening formed an impenetrable 
barrier, had been separated and disengaged by the wind, 
and that in one place a canal of open sea wound its course 
among them as far as the eye could discern. 

It was two miles beyond the entrance of this canal that a 
ship made its appearance about noon. The sun shone 
brightly at the time, and a gentle breeze blew from the 
north. At first some intervening icebergs prevented the 
captain from distinctly seeing anything but her masts; but 
he was struck by the strange manner in which her sails 
were disposed, and with the dismantled aspect of her yards 
and rigging. She continued to go before the wind for a few 
furlongs, and then grounding upon the low icebergs, re- 
mained motionless. His curiosity was so much excited that 
he immediately leaped into his boat, with several seamen, 
and rowed towards her. 

On approaching, he observed that her hull was consider- 
ably weather-beaten, and not a soul appeared upon the deck, 
which was covered with snow to a considerable depth. He 
hailed her crew several times, but no answer was returned. 
Previous to stepping on board, an open port-hole near the 
main chains caught his eye, and on looking in he perceived 
a man reclining on a chair, with writing materials be- 
fore him ; but the feebleness of the light made everything 
indistinct. The party went upon the deck, and having 



52 • FROZEN TO DEATH. 

uncovered the hatchway, they descended below to the cabin 
which the captain had viewed through the port-hole. A 
tremor seized him as he entered it. Its inmate retained his 
former position, and seemed to be insensible to the presence 
of the strangers. He was found to be a corpse, and a green 
damp mold had covered his cheeks and forehead, and veiled 
his eye-balls He had a pen in his hand, and a log-book lay 
before him, the last sentence in whose unfinished page ran 
thus: *' — November 11th, 1762. We have now been en- 
closed in the ice seventeen days. The fire went out yester- 
day, and our master has been trying ever since to kindle it 
again, but without success. His wife died this morning. 
There is no relief." 

The captain and his men hurried from the spot without 
uttering a word. On entering the principal cabin, the 
first object that attracted their attention was the dead body 
of a female, reclining on a bed in an attitude of deep interest 
and attention. Her countenance retained the freshness of 
life, and a contraction of the limbs alone showed that her 
form was inanimate. Seated upon the floor was the corpse 
of an apparently young man, holding a steel in one hand and 
a flint in the other, as if in the act of striking fire upon some 
tinder which lay beside him. In the forepart of the vessel 
several sailors were found lying dead in their berths, and 
the body of a boy was found crouched at the bottom of the 
gangway stairs. 

Neither provisions nor fuel could be discovered any- 
where ; but Captain Warrens was prevented, by the super- 
stitious prejudices of his seamen, from examining the ves- 
sel as minutely as he wished to have done. He therefore 
carried away the log-book alpeady mentioned, and returning 
to his own ship, immediately steered to the southward, 
deeply impressed with the awful example which he had just 
witnessed of the danger of navigating the Polar seas in 
high northern latitudes. On returning to England, he 



AWAEJ) TO CAPT. FRANCIS HALL. 53 

made various inquiries respecting vessels that had disap- 
peared in an unknown way ; and by comparing these results 
with the information which was afibrded by the written 
documents in his possession, he ascertained the name and 
history of the imprisoned ship and of her unfortunate mas- 
ter, and found that she had been frozen in thirteen years 
previous to the time of his discovering her imprisoned in 
the ice." 

One of the most successful Polar expeditions Avas that of 
the late Capt. Francis Hall, ship Polaris. 

The Geographical Society of Paris voted, at its session, 
April 21, 1875, the biennial prize, a gold medal, devoted to 
Arctic explorations, to Capt. Hall, In giving a brief 
account of his explorations, we shall quote a few extracts 
from the report of the Geographical Society, both as a de- 
served tribute to the memory of Capt. Hall, and as helping 
to furnish the reader with a description of the voyages 
undertaken by him. 

** The Prize Commission has before it several enterprises, 
which have had for their object either Smith's Sound, East- 
ern Greenland, Spitzbergen, or Nova Zembla. All of these de- 
serve our tribute of praise ; but especially that of the Polaris, 
the ship in which the American Francis Hall, passed be- 
yond Smith's Sound and Kennedy's Channel, as far as 82^^ 
16" — that is to say, the nearest to the pole that any vessel 
has reached under sail — has particularly commended the 
unanimous vote of the Commission." 

Capt. Hall was a veteran in arctic explorations. In 1850 
he was seized with the desire to take part in the expedition 
sent out in search for Franklin. Laying aside his grav- 
ing-tools, he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of 
the polar regions of America. He designed taking part in 
the McClintock expedition, failing in which, he resolved to 
organize a new expedition. He succeeded in interesting 
in his enterprise, Mr. Henry Grinnell and other distin- 



54 PREPARATIONS FOR HIS POLAR EXPEDITION. 

g'uislied philanthropists ; he left New London, Conn., in 1860, 
in the whale ship George Henry. The loss of his own boat 
prevented him from completing his expedition ; but he sat- 
isfied himself, among other geographical determinations, 
that what on previous charts had been marked as Fro- 
bisher's straits is a long open bay, without any communi- 
cation with the bay of Hudson. 

On his return here, in 1862, he published the results of 
his researches, in a work entitled, " Life with the Esqui- 
maux." In 1864, he returned to the Polar regions with his 
faithful companions, Joe and Hannah. The five succeeding 
years he spent in these regions in explorations. Sharing 
the daily life of this rude people, he made himself thoroughly 
acquainted with their language, customs and traditions, 
and thus was prepared on his return to this country, in 
1869, for his great expedition to the Pole — the final object of 
all his efforts. 

He busied himself very promptly in organizing it, ap- 
pealing to Congress for assistance, and while awaiting its 
action, sustained himself and his dusky friends, by lectures 
upon his preceding voyages. He met with many hind- 
rances, but finally obtained the use of a tug of 400 tons, 
which he admirably fitted up for its rough navigation in 
the ice, significantly naming her the Polaris. 

The following is an extract quoted from a letter written 
by Capt. Hall, in 1869 : " There is a great sad blot upon the 
present age, which ought to be wiped out, and this is the 
blank on our maps from about the parallel of 80° North 
up to the North Pole. I, for one, hang my head in shame, 
w^hen I think how many thousands of years ago it was that 
God gave to man this beautiful world — the whole of it — to 
subdue ; and yet that part of it which must be most interest- 
ing and glorious, at least to me, remains as unknown to us as 
though it had never been created. Neither glory nor money 



VOYAGE OF THE POLARIS. 55 

has caused me to devote my very life and soul to Arctic ex- 
plorations." 

The Polaris sailed from New London, July 3, 1871. Capt. 
Hall died, November 8, 1871, Capt. Budington then took 
charge of the expedition. 

The voyage from this time on, and until most of its sur- 
vivors providentially returned to their homes, is very sad, 
though full of heroic endurance. The sad tale has been 
read in most of our homes with moist eyes and aching 
hearts; how the Polaris left Thank God Harbor, drifted 
south and west, sprung a leak, requiring the most constant 
efforts to keep her from going down ; how, on that terrible 
stormy night of October 15, 1872, it was thought the vessel 
must sink, and orders were given to take to the ice. Instru- 
ments, charts, boats, etc., ivere hurriedly transferred to the 
floe ; but the drift changes its direction, the Polaris is re- 
leased from her grim pressure, the floe parts assunder, and 
the vessel, breaking from her moorings, drifts away in the 
darkness and howling tempest, leaving Capt. Tyson and 
eighteen of the crew on the ice. " Several men were seen 
hurrying toward the ship as she was leaving, but they failed 
to reach her. The voice of the steward, John Herron, was 
heard calling out, ' Good-bye, Polaris!'^' 

We will not attempt to picture the consternation of the 
separated voyagers, nor try to describe their after adven- 
tures ; suffice it to say, that most of them marvelously 
escaped the thousand dangers incidental to their perilous 
position. 

In concluding this meager description of the Polaris ex- 
pedition, we quote from the closing paragraphs of the re- 
port of the Paris Geographical Society : 

" In consideration of these results, your Prize Commis- 
mission has judged it their duty to award to Captain 
Francis Hall, the promoter and chief of the Polaris expedi- 
tion, that which is otherwise due him for his previous 



56 THE JEANNETTE EXPEDITION. 

labors, the gold medal of the Roquette Foundation. But 
Francis Hall, like his fellow countryman Kane, seven- 
teen years before him, has fallen a victim to his suffer- 
ings, and it is on a tomb that we must once more deposit a 
crown. If we are denied the gratification of giving to 
Francis Hall the medal which we have awarded him, we will 
have at least the consolation of transmitting it to his family. 
It will bear witness across the seas that death itself cannot 
prevent the just tribute of your gratitude for services ren- 
dered to geographical science. The Prize Commission 
awards this year the gold medal of the Roquette Founda- 
tion to the Arctic Explorer, Francis Hall, a medal which will 
be sent to the family of the unfortunate explorer," 

The Jeannette Expedition. — On July 8, 1879, about ten 
years after Capt. Hall started out on his voyage of discovery 
with the Polaris, Mr. James Gordon Bennett sent out an 
Arctic expedition from San Francisco, commanded by Lieu- 
tenant De Long, U. S. N. The details respecting route and 
purpose were withheld from the public. The Jeannette was 
early caught in the ice drift, and having no volition of her 
own, was driven hither and thither by the mechanical impulses 
of the pack for nearly two years. Thus day after day she 
drifted like Coleridge's ancient mariner. In this manner 
passed the year 1880 and the following spring, in monotony 
and hopelessness, when she was finally overwhelmed, and 
went down, June 11, 1881. Before she sank, provisions and 
boats were transferred to the ice, and the crew camped on 
an ice floe for four days, while preparations were being made 
for a retreat southward. Provisions were abundant, and the 
party, so long accustomed to danger, faced the perilous 
situation with courage, each trying to improvise amusement 
to raise the spirits of the party and make them forget for a 
time the anxiety caused by the loss of the ship. 

On June 17th, the entire party moved southward, hoping 
to reach the New Siberian Islands, and from there by boat 



SEPA RA TION OF THE BOA TS. 67 

to the coast of Siberia. They had five sledges and boats 
which curried nearly seven thousand pounds of provisions, 
besides lire-arms, clothing, etc. There being only tveenty-two 
dogs, each man was obliged to assist in hauling the heavily 
laden sledges. As the party proceeded southward, openings 
in the ice became frequent, which had to be bridged over 
with blocks of ice. This tedious work employed more than 
one half their time. 

As summer advanced, the floes became more broken, and 
piled so as to form huge mounds which were often thirty feet 
high. The dragging of the heavy sledges over this uneven 
surface was a work of inflnite danger and exhaustion, and 
great was the rejoicing on July 29th when land was sighted. 
It proved to be an island of considerable size and possessing 
many valuable products. This land was named Bennett 
Island. Game was found in abundance, and here the party 
remained till August 7th, when open sea was discov^ered 
southward. As the weather was favorable, De Long thought 
it expedient to abandon the island and take to the sea in 
boats. 

The provisions were equally distributed among the three 
boats. De Long appointed Melville to take command of the 
whale boat, and placed the second cutter in charge of Lieut. 
Chipp. De Long himself remained in the lirst cutter. He 
then instructed them to keep as near him as possible, and in 
case of separation to make for the Lena Delta. After a week 
of fearful battling with the waves and heavy floes, they had 
only gained forty miles, and starvation stared them in the 
face if the Siberian coast could not soon be reached. 

On the 12th of September the boats were caught in a ter- 
rific storm in whicli they were separated. De Long reached 
the Lena Delta seven days later with hardly sufticient food to 
last the party two days, and set out to And the nearest Rus- 
sian settlement. 

They were able to find game occasionally; but, owing to the 



58 THE SAD FATE OF DE LONG. 

illness of several of the men, progress was slow. Erickson 
had for many days undergone most dreadful suffering on 
account of his feet having been frozen. The very sinews and 
muscles of his feet were exposed ; yet in this condition he was 
forced to travel and carry a load of nearly forty pounds. 
Thus the terrible journey continued till October 6th, when 
Erickson died and was buried in the Lena River. 

Their situation now became most desoerate. The provi- 
sions were entirely exhausted. Nindemann and Noros, being 
the strongest of the party, set out, in obedience to their com- 
mander, in search of relief. Having no food, they had to sub- 
sist on pieces of their seal skin clothing. After untold suffer- 
ing, they reached a Russian settlement, called Ku Mark 
Surka, where they were kindly received. Through these peo- 
ple they had the joy of learning that Melville and party were 
in the neighboring settlement of Bulem. On meeting, expe- 
riences were soon exchanged. Melville had barely escaped 
being swamped at sea. Upon landing at Lena Delta they had 
been fortunate in meeting natives and obtahiing food. The 
terrible condition of De Long was soon told Melville, who 
immediately prepared to go to his relief after sending all 
save Nindemann to Takoutsk. 

Melville with I^indemann and two exiles started with ten 
days provisions to the relief of De Long. They were gone 
twenty-three daj'S in a fruitless search, as a heavy snow storm 
had completely covered the trail of Noros and Nindemann. 
They continued the search, with starvation staring them 
in the face, bat no traces were found of the missing men, 
although they traversed a distance of 663 miles. 

Upon returning, Melville communicated with the Ameri- 
can Minister at St. Petersburg, to whom he -gave a full ac- 
count of the expedition. Melville remained till the following 
spring to continue the search for his lost comrades, but sent 
nearly all the other survivors to the United States. March 
16th, 1882, they again set out on their mission of mercy, hav- 



HONORING THE BRA VE DEAD. 59 

ing received instructions from the Secretary of Navy to spare 
no pains for the recovery of tlie remains of the lost explorers. 
Tliey traveled over many miles without finding any traces of the 
lost De Long party. Finally they came upon the remains 
of a camp fire. Near by were found the bodies of De Long 
and his brave followers deeply buried in the snow. 

The bodies, thirteen in number, were placed in a common 
grave and a cairn of stones was erected to mark the place, that 
could be seen at a considerable distance. 

Melville then made a thorough search for Lieut. Chipp and 
party, but was unsuccessful. Nothing has ever been heard of 
them since the boats were separated in the gale. They were 
probably lost at sea. 

Lieut. Danenhower, with the survivors of the Jeannette crew, 
reached New York in May, 1881. Great interest and pity 
was felt when the sad story was told, and Congress gener- 
ously appropriated $25,000 to fit out a vessel with which to 
prosecute a diligent search for the lost parties. The Rogers^ 
Commander Lieut. Berry, reached Wrangle Land, August, 
1881. Three parties immediately commenced the search. 
When found, the bodies were carefully conveyed to Yakoutsk, 
where they were placed in caskets. They sailed for New 
York, reaching there early in 1883. On the 22d of February, 
the bodies were taken from the Brooklyn Navy Yard across 
the bay to the battery, and then 6scorted through the streets 
of New York by marines, regular troops and a vast concourse 
of people. On the 23d, they were conveyed to the Church 
of Holy Trinity, where services were held before they were 
consigned to their last resting-place. 

Owing to the unfortunate accident attending the Jeannette 
expedition, so early in its course, but few new geographical 
determinations or scientific knowledge was attained, but by 
whatever we know of the awful suiTerings and the unflinching 
adherence to duty of the Jeannette crew, we are lead to 
reverence the spirit of the brave and noble men who sacrificed 
themselves for the good of many. 



60 THE OBJECTS OF POLAR EXPLORATION. 

The Greely Expedition. — Lieut. Karl Weyprecht, as 
Commander of a successful Austrian Expedition in 1872 
and discoverer of Franz Josef Land, had become famous as 
an able and daring explorer. When, therefore, he appeared 
in September, 1875, before a meeting of German scientists 
with an original and definite project for establishing a 
series of co-operative Polar stations, his opinion carried 
great weight. He pointed out that the numerous costly 
expeditions that had previously been sent out, had done 
little more for physical research than to show that the Polar 
regions offers one of the most fertile fields for the investiga- 
tion of natural phenomena, particularly in reference to the 
physical condition of the earth. 

True, recent expeditions had been abundantly furnished with 
their scientific men and the most approved instruments, but 
it was a fact that each expedition had had no fixed plans laid 
down for the observation of phenomena, and the results had 
been unsatisfactory to the scientific world. It has long been 
admitted that the laws governing the winds and the great 
ocean currents will never be thoroughly understood until the 
physical condition of the Polar basin and the movements of 
the great ice masses are known. Hence the importance of 
scientific explorations in Polar regions. There are also many 
problems of magnetism and electricity which might have a 
most interesting solution, provided systematic experiments 
were conducted in the far north. 

Weyprecht's plan was, that each country should establish 
one or more Polar stations, to remain several years, and con- 
duct a series of simultaneous observations according to a pre- 
arranged plan. He thought that year by year these stations 
might be gradually advanced toward the north, and finally, in 
some favorable season, a dash might even be made to the Pole 
itself. He soon had many enthusiastic followers. In 1879 
the International Polar Conference was organized and at once 
took active measures to secure the co-operation of a sufficient 



THE CIRCUMPOLAR STATIONS 



Map Showing the Scientific Colonies Established in the Arctic Circle, 
According to the Directions of the Polar Conference. 




THE POLAE BASIN. 



Map Showing the Route to Lady Franklin Bay, the Site of the Greely Arctic Colony, and the 
Tracks of Former Exploring Expeditions Toward the Pole. 



CIRCU^^-POLAR STATIONS. 61 

number of governments. The United States readily acqui- 
esced in the scheme. March 3, 1881, Congress made an 
appropriation for the fitting out of two expeditions — one to 
establish a station at Point Barrow on the northern coast of 
Alaska — the other at Lady Franklin Bay in Smith's Sound. 
The Point Barrow station was successfully established under 
the command of Lieut, llae. He remained two years and 
carried out instructions to the letter. He returned safely to 
San Francisco in August, 1883, and was commended for his 
very successful work. 

In July, 1881, the Polar Conference held its third meeting 
at St. Petersburg and reported the requisite number of sta- 
tions as secured. 

It was decided that the observations at all the circum- Polar 
stations should begin as soon after August 1, 1882, as possi- 
ble and that they should be continued until September in the 
following year. 

The stations were finally resolved upon as follows : 

United States — at Lady Franklin Bay, also Point Barrow. 

Denmark — at Godthanb, in Greenland. 

Germany — at Cumberland Sound, west side Davis' Strait and South 
Georgia Islands. 

England — at Fort Eae, near Great Slave Lake. 

Russia — at Mouth of Lena River, and Nova Zembla. 

Holland — at Dickson's Haven, near Mouth of Yenesei River. 

Norway — at Bossekop. 

Sweden — at Spitzbergen. 

Austria — at Jan Mayen Island. • 

France — at Cape Horn. 

Finland — at Sodankyla. 

At this important meeting, a very elaborate programme for 
work at each of the above stations was agreed upon. The 
programme included meteorological and magnetic observa- 
tions to be made every hour during the whole period, and on 
the 1st and 15th of each month, observations were to be made 
every 20 seconds at a certain hour at all of the stations. All 
of the observations and calculations were finally to be pub- 



62 THE VOYAGE TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 

lished. This programme has for the most part been success- 
fully carried out, and the important and far-reaching results 
will be made known to the world in due time. 

Lieutenant Adolphus W. Greely, an able Officer in the 
United States Signal Service, an enthusiast on the subject 
of Arctic discovery, and a man of acknowledged bravery, 
was appointed to take command of the Lady Franklin Bay 
Expedition. Two other Acting Officers from the Signal Ser- 
vice, Second Lieutenants Frederick F. Bislingbury and James 
B, Lockwood were also selected. The expeditionary force 
when completely organized consisted of twenty-five men, 
including Dr. Octave Pavy the surgeon of the party, and 
two Esquimaux which were taken on board on the coast of 
Greenland. 

Lieutenant Greely sailed from St. Johns, IST. F,, July 7, 
1881, on the steamship Proteus^ bound to Lady Franklin 
Bay. Five days afterward, the expedition encountered 
huge bodies of ice. Passing safely through the pack, the 
harbor of Godhaven, on the coast of Greenland, was reached. 
Here the first stop was made, and fourteen dogs and two 
sledges were taken on board, also several tons of walrus 
flesh and dried fish. Upernavik, the last point of communi- 
cation between Europe and America, was safely reached on 
the 23d, where a six days halt was made to procure addi- 
tional supplies. Proceeding due north, Melville Bay, which 
usually abounds in the treacherous ice pack, was soon entered. 
All went well. The previous winter had been unusually 
mild, and the ice had broken up some time before, leaving 
the passage clear. Steaming onward at full speed, Littleton 
Island was reached August 2. Three hours later Cape 
Sabine was passed. Here the Neptune the following year was 
turned back, and the Proteus, in 1883, was crushed in the pack; 
strange to say Lieut. Greely passed through at full speed, and 
August 4th arrived in Lady Franklin Bay. Here the first 
obstruction was found. For seven days he was detained by an 



WORK OF THE GliEELY ARCTIC COLON F. 53 

immense harrier of ice from twenty to fifty feet thick, when 
within only a few miles of his destination. The pack finally 
broke up, allowing the vessel to pass through, and they arrived 
at Fort Discovery, where Greely had decided to establish the 
station. The work of unloading the stores and building a 
house began at once. Lieut. Greely named the station Fort 
Conger, in honor of Senator Conger of Michigan, wlio had 
been instrumental in securing the passage of the bill which 
authorized the expedition. 

The Protens left the party on August 1 8 and returned in 
safety to St. Johns, I^. F. The comparative ease with which 
the Prote^LS made the voyage to and from Fort Conger was 
unfortunate in one respect : it blinded people as to the real 
dangers of the route. The impression seemed to prevail, that 
the difficulties of the way had been exaggerated, and that 
Greely could be reached with ease. It was forgotten that 
only three vessels had ever before been successful in passing 
Kane Sea, and they only with the greatest difficulty. 

The party itself seems to have been blinded to the fact, 
that it miglit be impossible for another vessel to reach them 
for years. They confidently expected another vessel would be 
sent to visit them the next summer, and again in 1883, as had 
been promised. With courageous hearts, and witli no appre- 
hensions for the future, they settled down to their work. A 
large house had been built to contain their instruments, sup- 
plies, etc. They immediately began scientific work. Beside the 
work required of them by the International Series, they made 
voluntary observations covering almost every field of natural 
science. These included the galvanic earth currents in con- 
nection with magnetic and auroral phenomena, atmospheric 
electricity, the growth and structure of ice, temperature of the 
soil, snow and ice, hydrographical, spectroscopical and pendu- 
lum observations, etc. They accumulated large collections of 
Zoological, Geological and Botanical specimens. They also 
engaged in the more brilliant work of exploration. One of 



64 THE HIGHEST POINT EVER BEACHED. 

these exploring parties succeeded in pushing farther north 
than any discoverer had ever done before. It is briefly 
described in a dispatch from Greely to the Signal Office on 
his homeward voyage in 1884: — " For the first time in three 
centuries England yields the honor of the farthest north. 
Lieut. Lockwood and Sergeant Brainerd, May 13, reached 
Lockwood Land, lat. SS'' 24' N., long. 44" 5' W. They saw 
from 2,000 ft. elevation no land north or N.W , but to north- 
east Greenland, Cape Robert Lincoln, lat. 83° 35', long. 38°. 
Lieut. Lockwood was turned back in 1883 by open water on 
North Greenland shore, the party barely escaping drift into 
the Polar Ocean. Dr. Pavy, in 1882, followed Markham's 
route, was adrift one day in the Polar Ocean, north of Cape 
Joseph Henry, and escaped to land abandoning nearly every- 
thino" "********* 

This unparalleled reach was made May 13th, 1882. 
Parry, in 1827 reached lat. 79°. Dr. Kane, in 1854, lat. 
80° 30^ Dr. Hayes, 81° 31 in 1861. Hall, 82° 17' in 1871 
and Nares, 83° 20' in 1876. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83° 
24', being four miles farther north than civilized man had 
ever been before, but saw and computed 83° 35', which most 
northern point he named Cape Robert Lincoln. Lieut. 
Greely himself, in the summer of '82, discovered Lake Hazen 
in the interior of Grinnell Land. This Lake, about one-fourth 
the size of Lake Erie, is the most northern body of fresh 
water on the globe. Lying near this were two ranges named 
respectively after Senator Conger and the late President 
Garfield. Here were found evidences of a former Esquimaux 
Tillage, in all probability, the most northern habitation ever 
attempted by man. 

Lieut. Greely's instructions, before leaving the United 
States, had been to remain at Lady Franklin Bay two years. 
Vessels were to be sent to the station in 1882, and also in 
1883, which were to bring " supplies for, and such additions 
to, the present party as are deemed needful." If these vessels 



OREELY'S RETEEA T TO C.\ PE ,SM BIXE. g5 

were unable to reach Greely, they were to land a portion of 
their supplies on the coast of Grinncll Land and at Littleton 
Island. Li case neither vessel reached the station, Lieut. 
Greely was to abandon it, not later than Sept. 1, 1883, and 
proceed southward by boats until he should meet the relief 
vessel at Littleton Island. 

Lieut. Greely remained at Fort Conger two years, and, 
receiving no tidings from the United States, in accordance 
with his instructions, he abandoned the station, Aug. 9, 1883, 
and, with his entire party in good health, set out for Cape 
Sabine, where he arrived two months later. The journey 
was attended with much sufiering and many narrow escapes. 
At Baird's Inlet, the boats had to be abandoned. For thirty 
days they were afloat in Smith's Sound on an ice floe, when 
they were providentially driven upon Cape Sabine. Here 
they learned of the loss of the Proteiis, which had been sent 
out to them with supplies in 1883, and to their dismay, saw 
that another long Arctic winter, with scanty food, was before 
them. The food brought with them from Fort Conger was 
exhausted ; only a small quantity of food was found that had 
been saved from the Proteus. The prospect was most dis- 
heartening. Game abounded in abundance, but could not be 
secured on account of the loss of their boats. As a last 
resource from threatened starvation, Greely sent Elison, 
Rice, Linn and Fredericks to Cape Isabella, thirty miles dis- 
tant, to flnd, if possible, the beef cached by Captain Nares in 
1879. The four men set out on their perilous journey, 
and reached their destination in four days time. They found 
the meat and started on their return journey; a strong gale 
was blowing, and it was intensely cold. Elison sutiered 
greatly from thirst, and to relieve it ate snow against the 
advice of his companions. His hands became wet, and were 
soon frozen. His mouth and tongue ^were blistered. His 
feet also were frozen. He was placed in his sleeping bag 
and the others worked over him the entire night to restore 



QQ EXECUTION OF PRIVATE HENRY. 

circulation. The next day they resumed the journey. Elison 
soon gave out, and begged them to leave him to die and push 
on with the meat. They left the meat cached, and continued 
the march ; Elison having to be supported at nearly every 
step. Linn next gave out, and it was decided then that Rice 
should leave them and go_ on to camp for assistance. The 
men remained in their sleeping bags until twenty-four hours 
later, when Searg't Brainerd reached them with restoratives, 
which soon revived them. The remainder of the relief party 
soon arrived, and they were taken into camp. Elison lost the 
use of his feet, and all of his fingers and thumbs. Linn never 
recovered entirely from the exposure. The situation now of 
the little band was most critical, on account of the failure to 
bring the meat from Cape Isabella. They were at last 
obliged to resort to soup made of boiled seal-skin, mixed 
with reindeer moss and small shrimps. This was an extremely 
innutritions and indigestible diet. The men rapidly grew 
weak, and after January 1st the death rate was appalling. 

We have now to record a very serious incident, which is 
the only blot on a long chapter of heroism and unselfishness. 
Private Henry had many times been caught in the act of 
stealing provisions. Lieut. Greely's expostulations and 
warnings were of no avail. At last Greely, feeling that the 
safety of all depended upon Henry's removal, ordered him to 
be shot, which was quietly done, and the entire justice of the 
act was concurred in by the rest of the party, and has since 
been sanctioned by public opinion. 

One more elfort was made to obtain the meat which had 
been abandoned by the Elison party. Rice and Fredericks 
volunteered to go for it, and bravely started forth. But they 
were both weak from their scanty diet, and after wandering 
three days, they became completely exhausted. Rice sank 
down and died in his comrade's arms, Fredericks, after burying 
his friend, nerved himself for a mighty effort, and after three 
days wandering, succeeded in finding his way back to camp 



SAILING OF THE BELIEF .SQUADRON. gy 

again. His return, alone and empty-handed, cut off all hope 
from the despairing party ; nothing remained, hut to die hy 
a gradual process of starvation. 

At the time Greely was carrying out his plans and doing 
his meritorious work at Fort Conger, the Government at 
home were taking measures to fultill their part of the agree- 
ment, to dispatch supplies in both the following years. The 
JVejytime, in 18S2, was fitted out with supplies for the 
station at Fort Conger, l)ut she found Smith's Sound an 
impassable barrier of ice, and after battling with the pack 
from July until September, she turned back and returned 
to St. Johns. 

In June of 1883, another Relief Expedition was fitted out, 
under Lieut. Garliugton, bound for Fort Conger and points 
south, where supplies were to be cached. But misfortune 
awaited the trial. Not far from Cape Sabine the Proteus was 
crushed in an ice nip and sank. Her crew were rescued by 
the Yantic and returned to St. Johns, with nothing accom- 
plished for the men whose lives were already in peril. Blame 
is attached to the management of the Expedition on account of 
the failure of the Proteus to land a greater quantity of sup- 
plies at Cape Sabine or Littleton Island, before attempting to 
go farther north in the ice pack, thereby risking the loss of 
nearly all the stores, which caused the suflFering that soon 
followed, when Greely and his men returned to Cape Sabine, 
where they expected to find sufiicient supplies. 

Notwithstanding the ill-fated results of the former expedi- 
tions, and the general opinion that the Greely party could not 
have survived the last hard winter, Congress promptly appro- 
priated another large sum for making one more attempt to 
find the lost explorers. England kindly offered the use of 
the steamship Alert to aid in the search, and expressed great 
sympathy. The Expedition was commanded by Commander 
W. S. Schley, and consisted of three ships, the Thetis^ the 
Bear and the Alert. At no previous time had an expedition 



68 DISCOVERY OF THE GREELY CAMP. 

been fitted out so thoroughly, and great hope was entertained 
for its success. 

The Relief Expedition left New York about May 1, 1884, 
bound on its errand of mercy. The voyage to the ice-bound 
north was made with few adventures, and the ice-pack prov- 
ing favorable, they found themselves off Cape Sabine on the 
22d of June. By whistling at frequent intervals, and by keep- 
ing a sharp look-out, their efforts were at last rewarded. 
The unusual sound of the steam-whistle had attracted the 
attention of Long, who left the Greely tent, and wemt to a 
large rock that afforded an extensive view of the sea. At 
first nothing was visible, but he was finally rewarded by the 
welcome sight of one of the relief vessels. Long succeeded 
in attracting their attention by means of a signal flao;, and a 
small steam launch was immediately dispatched from the 
ship, bearing Colwell and a few others. As the boat reached 
the shore. Long ran to meet it, falling every few steps from 
weakness. Colwell hailed him from the boat, and inquired, 
" Who all are there left ? " Long answered, " Seven left.'^ 
The cutter touched the shore, Colwell sprang quickly out and 
greeted Long, who soon informed them where to find the 
camp. He was then taken into the cutter, while the others 
hastened to the camp. It was found that the tent had been 
partly blown down by a gale that had been blowing for sev- 
eral days, so that there was very little i*oom left inside. The 
party had been too weak to raise it. Colwell and his com- 
panions raised the tent and looked in ; a sight of horror 
greeted them. It is thus described by Commander Schley 
in his Official Report : 

" Lieut. Greely was found in his sleeping bag, his body 
inclined forward, and head resting upon his left hand. Tlie 
book of Common Prayer was open in his right hand. He 
appeared to be reading prayers to Private Connell, whose 
condition was most desperate and critical. He was cold to 
the waist ; all sensation of hunger gone ; his eyes were fixed 



^TARVATloy. 69 

and glassy ; indeed his weakness was such, that it was with 
difficulty that he swallowed the stimulants given liini by 
Dvs. Green and Ames. 

" This tender scene, of a helpless, almost famislied 
officer consoling a dying companion, was, in itself, one 
that brought tears to the eyes of the strongest of 
those who stood about them on the merciful errand of relief. 
To look upon such wretchedness and destitution, eyes that 
had not wept for years were moistened with tears, in the 
solemnity of that heroic hour in the lives of that little heroic 
band of sufferers, until that moment so hopeless and helpless. 
At length they were safely placed on board the rescuing 
squadron, where every preparation had been made to insure 
their recovery." 

The next day was spent in collecting the belongings of the 
camp, and in exhuming the bodies of the dead to be carried 
home with the survivors. This was carefully done, and in a 
manner that no mistake could be made in regard to the iden- 
tit}'^ of the bodies, which was of the more importance, as it was 
afterwards found, in preparing the bodies for burial, that six 
of them had been mutilated by the knife and the flesh 
removed. 

Through a sensational press, it has since become generally 
known that the men, in the last stages of starvation, did act- 
ually eat the flesh of their dead comrades. At first, great 
indignation and disgust was expressed at this inhuman act, 
but, in calm after-thought, society has been lead to look upon 
the deed in a charitable light, and perhaps to even wonder if, 
liad they themselves been placed in so trying a position, 
whether they, too, might not have done the same in fulfilling 
tlie first law of nature — self-preservation. 

The survivors, though out of danger, were still in a very 
weak condition upon their arrival at St. Johns, July 17th. 
Here they were received with the greatest enthusiasm and 
excitement. A dispatch was immediately sent to the Secre- 



70 HOME AGAIN. 

tary of Navy, giving a full account of the expedition. The first 
message from Greely to his wife was also sent. 

The following is an extract from a dispatch from Lieut. 
Greely to Gen. W. B, Hazen, Chief Signal Officer at 
Washington, D. 0. : 

" The survivors owe their lives to the indomitable energy 
of Capt. Schley and Lieut. Emory, who, preceded by three and 
accompanied by five whalers, forced their vessels from Uper- 
navik through Melville Bay into North Water at Cape York, 
with the foremost whaler. They gained a yard wherever 
possible and always held it. Smith's Sound was crossed and 
the party rescued during one of the most violent gales I have 
ever known. Boats were handled only at imminent risk of 
swamping. Four of ns were then unable to walk and could 
not have survived exceeding twenty-four hours. Every care 
was given us. I saved and bring back copies of meteorolog- 
ical, tidal, astronomical, magnetic, pendulum and other 
observations ; also pendulum Yale and standard thermometers ; 
forty-eight photographic negatives, a collection of blanks and 
photographic proofs. Esquimaux relics and other things were 
necessarily abandoned." 

To this dispatch Greely received the following reply, from 
Gen. Hazen : 

" Our hearts are overflowing with gladness and thanks to 
God for your safety, and in sadness for those who, without 
fault of yours, are dead. Your family are well in San Diego. 
Your dispatches are most satisfactory and show your expedi- 
tion to have been in the highest degree successful in every 
particular. This fact is not affected by tlie disaster later." 

August 2d they arrived at Portsmouth, N. H., where they 
were met by a large fleet of war vessels. They were warmly 
greeted by the Secretary of Navy, the Chief Signal Officer 
of the United States, and by many friends of both expe- 
ditions. 

The first person to come on board the Thetis was Mrs. 



PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED. 71 

Greely. The meeting between husband and wife was most 
affecting. Their stay in Portsmouth was one continued ova- 
tion. August 8, tlie squadron arrived at New York. Sailing 
up the Bay they were saluted by twenty-one guns from Fort 
Columbus. At Governor's Island, the batteries of the 4th and 
5th Artillery, with a large number of prominent citizens and 
officers of high rank, were drawn up to receive them. Every 
tribute of respect was shown the honored dead, and to the six 
brave survivors was accorded by their countrymen a hearty 
welcome home. 

Every decade of modern history witnesses renewed attempts 
to draw aside the veil that seems to shroud the beginning of 
earth's distance in impenetrable mystery. Does the magic 
circle encompass vast treasures hoarded by nature, that God 
in His own good time will reveal to man for his admiration 
and use ? Will the North Pole ever be discovered ? Will 
such discovery explain the attraction of the magnetic needle, 
and tell us what is electricity ? Will gravitation cease to be a 
law, and a new law take its place that will be the basis of 
new departures and inventions ? These queries remain to be 
answered, and the solution of the enigma is engaging the 
best thought of the world. 



CHAPTER III. 




ICEBERGS. 

' ' These are 
The palaces of Nature, whose vast walls 
Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, 
And throned eternity in icj halls, 
Of cold sublimity." 

Byron. 

["MONG- the most imposing and grand of the 
many wonders of the ocean world, are the 
fixed and floating icebergs, the " palaces of 
nature," which assume extraordinary and fan- 
tastic shapes, and more than realize the most 
sublime conceptions of the imagination. Well indeed may 
the mind become awe-struck and the heart almost cease 
to beat as the lips exclaim, " Wonderful Thou art in all 
Thy works ! Heaven and earth are full of the majesty 
of Thy glor}^ !" on beholding these mighty and surpassing 
works of the great Creator. East and west, north and 
south, the Arctic regions present a picture of grandeur 
and magnificence nowhere to be equalled — great beyond 
conception — impossible to be portrayed. 

These icebergs are described by Arctic navigators as 
imitating every style of architecture on earth ; cathedrals 
with pillars, arches, portals, and towering pinnacles, over- 
hanging cliffs, the ruins of a marble city, palaces, pyramids, 
and obelisks; castles with towers, walls, bastions, fortifica- 
tions, and bridges ; a fleet of colossal men-of-war under full 
sail; trees, animals, and human beings: one is described as 
an enormous balloon lying on its side in a collapsed state. 



VUANGINO 2UNTS Ot' ICEBEIiOS. 73 

A number of icebergs seen at the distance of a few miles 
presented the appearance of a mountainous country, de- 
ceiving the eyes of experienced mariners. 

These icebergs differ somewhat in color, according to 
age, solidity, or the atmosphere. A very general appear- 
ance is that of cliffs of chalk, or of white-gray marble. A 
few have a blue or emerald-green tint. The sun's rays re- 
flected from them give a glistening appearance to their sur- 
face, like that of silver. In the night, they are readily 
distinguished in the distance by their natural effulgence, 
and, in foggy weather, by a peculiar blackness of the atmos- 
phere. 

A writer thus describes the strange and sudden trans- 
formations and the changing tints of icebergs. " One re- 
sembled, at first, a cluster of Chinese buildings, then a 
Gothic cathedral of the early style. It was curious to see 
how all that mimicry of a grand religious pile was soon to 
change to another like the Coliseum, its vast interior now a 
delicate blue, and then a greenish white. It was only neces- 
sary to run on half a mile to find this icy theatre split 
asunder. An age of ruin seemed to have passed over it, 
leaving only to view the inner cliffs, one a glistening white, 
and the other blue, soft and airy as the July heavens." An- 
other berg shone like polished silver, dripping with dews, 
the water streaming down in all directions in little rills and 
falls, glistening in the light like molten glass. Veins of gem- 
like transparency, blue as sapphire, crossed the mass. 

" Solomon, in all his glory," was not clothed like the flowers 
of the field. Would you behold an iceberg appareled with 
a glory that eclipses all floral beauty, and makes you think 
not only of the clouds of heaven at sunrise and sunset, but 
of heaven itself, you must come to it at sunrise and sunset. 
Lofty ridges of the shape of flames have the tint of flames; 
out of the purity of the lily bloom the pink and the rose. 
We will not say cloth of gold drapes, but water of gold 



74: ORIGIN OF ICEBERGS. 

washes — water of green, orange, scarlet, crimson, and purple 
wash — the crags and steeps; strange metallic tints gleam in 
the shaggy caverns, copper, bronze, and gold : endless grace 
of form and outline. 

These icebergs — so beautiful in summer, so grand and 
awful under a wintry aspect — project above the surface of 
the sea like high hills composed of rugged and steep rock. 
Navigators have frequently stated that they have seen them 
rising from four to five hundred feet above the water, and 
extending more than a mile in length. A Danish navigator 
examined an iceberg on the eastern coast of Greenland, and 
estimated its circuit, at its base, at four thousand feet. In 
height it was one hundred and twenty feet above the sea- 
level. He calculated that its contents amounted to upwards 
of nine millions of cubic feet. 

The reader may be interested to know the origin of 
these stupendous floating bergs, whence they come, how 
they are formed, and their ultimate destination. It has 
been ascertained, beyond all doubt, that they originate in 
the land, being nothing more than fragments of glaciers — 
a name given to immense masses of ice, or appendages to 
snow mountains. By far the larger number of these are 
formed on the coast of Greenland. The mountains are 
always covered with snow ; the valleys between them are 
filled with ice, derived from the higher portions of the 
mountains, and are thus converted into enormous glaciers. 
If the extent of all the shores of Greenland, in which the 
glaciers advance to the very sea, were put together, it is 
probable they would constitute a coast-line exceeding six 
hundred miles in length. These are the birth-places of the 
icebergs. The average height or depth of the ice at its free 
edge, or seaward, in these valleys is about twelve or fifteen 
hundred feet. As the glaciers advance farther into the sea, 
the rise and fall of the tide undermine the base, and enor- 
mous masses become detached and fall into the sea with a 



1p 111 '''''•'' 

Sill", 'III r'", iiiii 




76 TEBB0R8 OF NA VIQ ATOMS AMONG ICEBERGS. 

crash like thunder. The icebergs thus formed — vast moving 
mountains or islands — are drifted along, some finding their 
way to the North Atlantic — a distance of more than two 
thousand two hundred miles from the place of departure — 
brought down by a strong current which appears to origi- 
nate under the immense masses of ice which surround the 
Arctic Pole. 

Fearfully appalling are the dangers arising from these 
icebergs on their floating voyages, and we cannot wonder at 
the terror excited by their appearance among the early 
navigators among these ice-bound seas. In the expedition 
of Captain James Hall, under Danish auspices, for exploring 
Greenland, the sailors were in sight of the south point of 
that country, and, to avoid the ice, which encompassed the 
shore, they stood to the westward, and fell in with " mighty 
islands of ice, being very high, like huge mountains of ice, 
making a hideous and wonderful noise," and on one of them 
was observed " a huge rockstone of the weight of three 
hundred pounds or thereabouts." Finding nothing but ice 
and fog from the 1st to the 10th of June, the LiovbS people 
hailed the admiral, " calling very fearfully, and desiring 
the pilot to alter his course, and return homeward." The 
alarm spread to the admiral's ship, and they had determined 
to put about, had not Cunningham (the captain) protested 
he would stand by the admiral, "as long as his bloode 
was warme, for the good of the Kinge's majestic." This 
pacified the seamen for a moment, but the next floating 
island of ice renewed the terrors of those on board the Lion., 
who, having fired a piece of ordnance, stood away to the 
southward. 

All later voyagers in the Arctic Seas describe the su- 
blimity of these moving mountains and islands of ice, and 
the fearful perils encountered among them. The following 
thrilling instance of hairbreadth escape is related : " It was 
awful to behold the immense icebergs, working their way 



FSGAFES FROM ICEBERGS. 77 

to the northeast from lis, and not one drop of watc to be 
seen; they were working themselves right through the mid- 
dle of the ice. The dreadful apprehensions that assailed us 
yesterday, by the near approach of the iceberg, were this 
day awfully realized. About three P. M. the iceberg came 
in contact with our floe, and in less than one minute it broke 
the ice we Avere frozen in quite close to the shore ; the floe 
(similiar to field ice, but smaller, as its extent can be seen), 
was shivered to pieces for several miles, causing an explos- 
sion like an earthquake, or one hundred pieces of cannon 
fired at the same moment. The iceberg, with awful but 
majestic grandeur (in height and dimensions resembling 
a vast mountain), came almost to our stern, and every one 
expected it would have run over the ship. The intermediate 
space between the berg and the vessel was filled with heavy 
masses of ice, v/hich, though they had been previously bro- 
ken by the immense weight of the iceberg, were again 
formed into a solid body by its pressure. The iceberg was 
drifting at the rate of about four knots an hour, — and by its 
force on the mass of ice, was pushing the ship before it, and. 
as it seemed, to inevitable destruction. A gracious Provi 
dence ruled this otherwise : the iceberg, that so lately threat- 
ened destruction, was driven completely out of sight to the 
northeast." 

It has been supposed that the unfortunate steamship the 
President, which left England for New York in 1841, was 
crushed to pieces between icebergs. In the year that 
this magnificent vessel was lost, the Atlantic Ocean was 
more thickly beset wdth icebergs, and at an earlier season, 
than commonly occurs. This is ascertained from a report 
of the Great Western steamer, which was published in New 
York. This vessel left England about the middle of April 
in the same year, and encountered an ice-field, wdiich ex- 
tended far more than a hundred miles, and along the south- 
ern edge of which she proceeded. This edge w^as lined by 




BREAKING UP OF ICEBERGS. 



VESSELS LOST BY CONTACT WITH ICEBERGS. 79 

a broad border of loose ice, consisting of numerous floes 
and icebergs, and a considerable quantity of flouting ice. 
To make way between these masses, the steamer was com- 
pelled frequently to change her course, for fear of coming 
in contact with them. The number of icebergs which were 
in sight of the vessel amounted to three hundred, and the 
largest was three-fourths of a mile long, and about a hun- 
dred feet high. A similar calamity to that which is sup- 
posed to have befallen the President is said to have well- 
nigh occurred to the brig Anne, of Poole, which, in a voy- 
age from Newfoundland to England, was so completely be- 
set by ice that no means of escape were visible. The ice 
in its whole extent rose fourteen feet above the surface of 
the water. It drifted toward the southeast, and bore the 
ship along with it for twenty-nine successive days. An 
opening most providentially occurred, by which the vessel 
became disengaged. 

The President in 1841, the City of Glasgoio in 1854, the 
Pacific in 1856, and, later, the City of Boston, have disap- 
peared, from, it is supposed, their contact with icebergs. 

Captain Ross draws a vivid picture of what a vessel is ex- 
posed to in sailing amidst these moving hills. He reminds his 
readers that ice is like stone, as solid as if it were granite, 
and he bids them *' imagine these mountains hurled through 
a narrow strait at a rapid rate, meeting with the noise of 
thunder, breaking from each other's precipices huge frag- 
ments, or rending each other asunder, until, losing their 
former equilibrium, they fall over headlong, lifting the sea 
around in breakers, and whirling it in eddies. There is not 
a moment in which it can be conjectured what will happen 
in the next; there is not one which may not be the last." 

It is generally found that a strong current runs along the 
sides of an iceberg, and a vessel approaching too near is vio- 
vently forced against the mass, and dashed to pieces. 

Another source of danger arises from mooring vessels to 



80 BANGER OF MOORING TO ICEBERGS. 

icebergs, which is frequently done for slielter in strong ad- 
verse winds, or when the vessel is rendered unmanageable by 
the accumulation of drift-ice around ; but there is this dan- 
ger: the icebergs are very nicely poised; if a large piece of 
ice breaks off from one side, the whole mass is suddenly and 
rapidly turned over, by which vessels have often been 
wrecked or destroyed, while boats have been upset, even at 
a considerable distance, by the vast waves produced by the 
sudden change of position of an iceberg. 

An incident is related of two sailors who were attempt- 
ing to fix an anchor to an iceberg. They began to hew a 
hole in the ice, but scarcely had the first blow been struck, 
when suddenly the immense mass split from top to bottom, 
and fell asunder, the two halves falling in contrary direct- 
tions with a prodigious crash. Fortunately the men 
escaped. 

Sometimes vessels moor to icebergs when in want of 
water, and obtain it from the deep pools which, in the 
summer season, are found on the depressed surface of some 
bergs, or from the streams running down their sides ; but 
if, meanwhile, the iceberg should fall to pieces, which is 
likely at any moment during the summer season to be the 
case, the vessel is liable to be buried under its icy mooring. 
The precarious character of these huge mountains of ice 
will be understood from an anecdote related by Dr. Hayes,, 
the Arctic navigator : " A few years ago, while a French 
man-of-war was lying at anchor in Temple Bay, Labrador, . 
the younger officers resolved on amusing themselves upon 
an iceberg a mile or more distant in the straits. They 
made sumptuous preparations for a picnic upon the very 
top of it, the mysteries of which they were curious to see. 
All warnings of the fishermen in the ears of the smartly- 
dressed gentlemen who 'had seen the world,' were useless. . 
It was a bright summer morning, and the jolly-boat with a 
showy flag went oif to the iceberg. By twelve o'clock the = 



PICNIV ON AN ICEBERG. 81 

colors were flying from the icy turrets, and the wild young 
midshipmen were shouting from its walls. For two hcmrs 
or so they hacked and clambered the crystal palace, frolicked 
and feasted, drank toasts to the King and the ladies, 
and laughed at the thought of peril where all seemed 
so fixed and solid. As if in amazement of such rashness, 
the grim Alp of the sea made neither sound nor motion. 
A profound stillness reigned on its shining pinnacles and in 
the blue shadows of its caves. When the youngsters, like 
thoughtless children, had played themselves weary, they 
went down to their boat. As if the time and distance were 
measured, they were scarcely out of harm's way when 
the mighty iceberg collapsed and broke into a myriad 
fragments, which filled the surrounding waters. This 
was, no doubt, the first and last day of amusement on an ice- 
berg by the daring young seamen." 

Icebergs are not affected by the swell of the sea, which 
breaks up the largest fields of ice in the space of a few hours ; 
they rise and fall with a tremendous noise, though their size 
and form remain the same. But, when acted upon by the 
sun or a temperate atmosphere, they become hollow and 
fragile. Few icebergs are destroyed in the Northern seas; 
a large number get as far as the great banks of Newfound- 
land, which is occasionally crowded with them. 

The fields of ice that float in the Polar Seas are often 
twenty or thirty miles in diameter, and some hundreds of feet 
in thickness. It is calculated that upwards of twenty-thou- 
sand square miles of drifting ice come down every year 
along the coast of Greenland into the Atlantic, moving on 
during the winter at the rate of about five or six miles 
a day. The Resolute exploring ship, which was abandoned 
in Melville's Straits, on account of its being enclosed firmly 
in a vast field of ice, was afterwards found in Baffin's Bay, 
having been carried a thousand miles from its former posi- 
tion by the drift of an icefield three hundred thousand square 



82 



THE WISE PROVISION OF NATURE. 



miles in extent and seven feet thick. This will give an 
idea of the quantity of ice which is carried out of the Polar 
regions, independent of the icebergs, and drifted into 
warmer climates. 

The formation and destruction of ice within the Arctic 
Circle is a beautiful provision of Nature for adjusting the 
inequality of temperature. Had only dry land been thus 
exposed to the sun, it would, in summer, have been actually 
scorched by its beams, yet severely pinched during the 
darkness of the winter by the most intense and penetrating 
cold. None of the animal or vegetable tribes could have 
supported such extremes. But in the actual arrangement 
the surplus heat of summer is spent in melting away the ice. 
As long as ice remains to thaw or water to freeze, the tem- 
perature of the atmosphere can never vary beyond certain 
limits. 




CHAPTER IV. 




LIFE IN THE OCEAN. 

ITHE appearance of the open sea," says Fridol, 
" far from the shore — the boundless ocean — 
is to the man who loves to create a world 
of his own, in which he can freely exercise 
his thoughts, filled with sublime ideas of 
the Infinite. His searching eye rests upon 
the far distant horizon. He sees there the ocean and the 
heavens, meeting in a vapor}- outline, where the stars ascend 
and descend, appear and disappear in their turn. Presently 
this everlasting change in Nature awakens in him a vague 
feeling of that sadness, Avhich, says Humboldt, ' lies at the 
root of all our heartfelt joys.' " 

Emotions of another kind are produced by the contem- 
plation and study of the habits of the innumerable organized 
beings which inhabit this great deep. In fact, that immense 
expanse of water which we call the sea, is no vast liquid 
desert; light dwells on its bosom as it does on that of dry 
land. Here this mystery of life reigns supreme. It is 
among the most beautiful, the most noble, and the most in- 
comprehensible of His manifestations. Without life, the 
world would be as nothing. All the beings endowed with it 
transmit it faithfully to other beings, they, again, to their 
successors, which will be, like them, the depositories of the 
same mysterious gift; the marvelous heritage thus traverses 
years and hundreds of years without losing its powers ; the 
globe is teeming with the life which has been so bounteous- 
ly distributed over it. 



84 DEATH THE FOSTER-MOTHER OF LIFE. 

In every living being there are two powers, between \vhich 
a silent but incessant combat is being carried on — life, which 
builds up ; and death, which pulls asunder. At first, life is 
all powerful — it lords it over matter; but its reign is 
limited. 

Bej^ond a certain point, its physical vigor becomes gradu- 
ally impaired ; with old age, it feebly struggles ; and it is 
finally extinguished with time, when the chemical and physi- 
cal law^s seize upon it, and its organization is destroyed. But, 
in turn, the very elements, though inert at first, are soon re- 
animated and occupied with new life. Every plant, every 
animal, is bound up with the past, and is a part of the future ; 
for every generation which starts into life is only the corol- 
lary upon that which is about to be born. Life is the school 
of death; death is the foster-mother of life. 

Life, however, does not always exhibit itself at the actual 
moment of its formation. It is visible later, and only after 
other phenomena. In order to develop itself, a suitable 
medium must be prepared, and other determinate physical 
and chemical conditions provided. 

If we expose a quantity of pure water to the light and 
air, in the spring-time or summer season, we would soon see 
it producing minute spots of a yellowish or greenish color. 
These spots, examined through the microscope, reveal 
thousands of vegetable forms. Presently thousands of Rhiza- 
pods and Infusoria appear, which move and swim about the 
floating vegetable forms upon which the}'' nourish themselves. 
Other infusoria then appear, which, in their turn, pursue 
and devour the first. 

In short, life transfers unorganized into organized matter. 
Vegetables appear first, then come herbivorous animals, and 
then come the carnivorous. Life maintains life. The death 
of one provides food and development to others ; for all are 
bound up together, all assist at the metamorphosis continu- 
ally occurring in the organic as in the inorganic \vorld, the 



INJ!^UMERABLE ORGANIZED BEINGS. 85 

result being general and profound harmony — harmony always 
worthy of admiration. The Creator alone is unchangeable, 
omnipotent, and permanent ; all else is transition. 

The inhabitants of the water are at least as numerous as 
those of the solid earth. " Upon a surface less varied than 
we find on continents," says Humboldt, " the sea contains 
in its bosom an exlmberance of life, of which no other por- 
tion of the globe could give us any idea. It expands in the 
north as in the south; in the east as in the west. The seas, 
above all, abound with this life ; in the bosom of the deep, 
creatures corresponding and harmonizing with each other 
sport and play. Among these the naturalist finds instruc- 
tion, and the philosopher subject for meditation. The 
changes they undergo only impress upon our minds more 
and more a sentiment of thankfulness to the Author of the 
universe." 

Yes, the ocean, in its profoundest depths — its plains and 
its mountains, its valleys, its precipices — is animated and 
beautified by the presence of innumerable organized beings. 
Among these we find the Alg^e, solitary or social, erect or 
drooping, spreading into prairies, grouped in patches, or 
forming vast forests in the ocean valleys. These submarine 
forests protect and nourish millions of animals, which creep, 
which run, which swim among them ; others, again, sink into 
the sands, attach themselves to rocks, or lodge themselves in 
their crevices; these construct dwellings for themselves; 
they seek or fly from each other; they pursue or fight, caress 
each other lovingly, or devour each other without pity. Our 
terrestial forests do not maintain nearly as many living be- 
ings as those which swarm in the bosom of the sea. 

The sea influences its numerous inhabitants, animal or 
vegetable, by its temperature, by its density, by its saltness, 
by its bitterness, by the nevei'-ceasing agitation of its waves, 
and by the rapidity of its currents. 

When the tide retires from the shore, the sea leaves upon 



86 8EA.SH0BE DEPOSITS. 

the coast some few of the numberless beings which it car- 
ries in its bosom. In the first moments of its retreat, the 
naturalist may collect a crowd of substances, vegetable and 
animal, of various characteristic color and properties. The 
inhabitants of the coast may find there their food, their com- 
merce, their occupations. 

At low water, the nearest villages and hamlets send their 
contingents, old and young, to gather the riband seaweed, 
a source of great wealth to the dwellers by the sea, being 
much used in making kelp ; others gather the small shells 
left on the sand ; boys mount upon the rocks in search of 
whelks and of mussels, and detach limpets from the rocks to 
which they attach themselves. 

On some coasts, shells are sought for their beauty. By 
turning the stones, or by sounding the crevices of the rocks 
with a hook at the end of a pole, cuttles and calmars are 
sometimes surprised, sometimes even a young conger eel 
which has sought refuge there ; while the pools, left here 
and there by the retiring tide, are dragged by nets of very 
small mesh, in which the smaller Crustacea, mollusks, and 
small fish are secured. 

In the Mediterranean and other inland seas, where the 
tide is almost inappreciable, there will be found to exist a 
great number of animals and Algse belonging to the deep 
sea, which the waves or currents very rarely leave upon 
the sea-shore. There are others again so fugitive, or 
which attach themselves so firmly to the rocks, that we can 
watch them only in their habitats. It is necessary to study 
them, floating on the surface of the waves, or ia their mys- 
terious retirements. 

" We find in the sea," says Lacepede, " unity and divers- 
ity, which constitutes its beauty ; grandeur and simplicity, 
which give it sublimity ; puissance and immensity, which 
command our wonder." 




SUB-MARIXE PCEXERY. 



CHAPTER Y. 




MINUTE ANUIAL LIFE. 

** Oh, wliat an endless work liatli lie in hand 
Who'd count the sea's abundant progeny ; 
Whose fruitful seed far passetli that on laud. 
And also them that roam the azure sky, 
So fertile be the floods in generation, 
So vast their numbers, and so numberless their nation." 

— Spencer. 

LRUE and just are the words of the British 
poet; though the surface of the ocean is 
less rich in animal and vegetable forms 
than that of continents, still, when its depths 
are searched, perhaps no other portion of our 
planet presents such fullness of organic life. 
It has been said that our land forests do not harbor so many 
animals as the low-wooded regions of the ocean, where the 
sea-weeds, rooted to the shoals, or long branches detached by 
the force of waves and currents, and swimming free, up- 
borne by air-cells, unfold their delicate foliage. The micro- 
scope still further increases our impression of the profusion 
of organic life which pervades the recesses of the ocean, 
since throughout its mass we find animal existence, and at 
depths exceeding the height of our loftiest mountain chains. 
Here swarm countless hosts of minute animals, which, when 
attracted to the surface by particular conditions of weather, 
convert every wave into a crest of light. The abundance 
of these minute creatures, and of the animal matter supplied 
by their rapid decomposition, is such, that the sea-water 



PROFUSION OF ANIMAL LIFE. 89 

itself becomes a nutritious fluid to many of the large inhab- 
itants of the ocean. 

Even in the bleak and dreary regions of the Northern 
world the wintry seas are filled with a profusion of animal 
life. The smaller species, of which the herring may be 
talven for an example, are found amidst the depths of the 
Arctic zone in immense shoals ; countless millions of crea- 
tures, sometimes known as sea nettles, a genus of Acalephce, 
signifying "nettles'"' (so named from the stinging power 
which many of them possess), of higher organization than 
the 3Iedusce, or jellj^-fish, exist here, with globular or oval 
bodies of a delicate or jelly-like substance, strengthened by 
bands which are covered with rows of large cilia (a peculiar 
sort of moving organs resembling microscopic hairs), the 
motion of which is extremely rapid, and is evidently con- 
trolled by the will of the little animal. Jelly-Fish, Zoophytes, 
etc., swarm also to such an extent as to convert the surface 
water in some places almost into a kind of soup, which fur- 
nishes food not only to small fish, but to whales and animals 
of the largest growth. Even the color of the ocean is influ- 
enced by the enormous quantity of the organic life it sus- 
tains. The application of the microscope — for by far the 
most numerous of the animalculte can only thus be traced — 
shows them to be the cause of a peculiar tinge observed 
over a great extent of the Greenland Sea. This color is 
olive-green, and the water is dark and dense compared to 
that which bears the common cerulean hue. The portion of 
the ocean so distinguished amounts to not less than twenty 
thousand square miles, and hence the number of animalculae 
which that space contains is far beyond human calculation. 

Some of the calculations of an ingenious and clever writer 
are very curious and instructive. In a drop of water there 
were fifty of these animalculae, on an average, in each square 
of the micrometer-glass of an eight hundred and fortieth of 
an inch ; and as the drop occupied a circle on a plate of 



90 ANIMALCUL^^ IS A DROP OF WATER. 

glass containing five hundred and twenty-nine of these 
squares, there must have been in this single drop of water — 
taken out of the yellowish-green sea, in a place by no means 
the most discolored — about twenty-six thousand four hun- 
dred and fifty of these animalculge ! Hence, reckoning sixty 
drops to a dram, there would be a number in a gallon of 
water exceeding, by one-half, the population of the whole 
globe ! It gives a wonderful conception of the minuteness 
and vastness of creation, when we think of more than twen- 
ty-six thousand animals — living, obtaining subsistence, and 
moving perfectly at their ease, without annoyance to one 
another — in a single drop of water! 

The diameter of the largest of these animalculse was only 
the two-thousandth part of an inch, and many only the four- 
thousandth. The army which Bonaparte led into Russia in 
1812, estimated at five hundred thousand men, would have 
extended — in a double row, or two men abreast, with two 
feet three inches space for each couple of men — a distance 
of one hundred and six and a half English miles; the same 
number of these animalculse, arrayed in a similar way in two 
rows, but touching one another, would only reach j^ve/ee^ tioo 
and a half inches ! A whale requires an ocean to sport in, 
but about one hundred and fifty millions of these animalculas 
would have abundant room in a tumbler of water! What a 
stupendous idea is thus afforded of the immensity of crea- 
tion, and of the bounty of Divine Providence, in furnishing 
such a profusion of life in regions so remote from the habi- 
tations of men! Even if we consider the number of animals 
in a space of two miles square as great, what must be the 
amount requisite for the discoloration of the sea through an 
extent of, perhaps, twenty or thirty thousand square miles! 

If we turn from the Arctic seas to the warmer regions of 
the ocean, we find the same wonderful profusion of animal 
life existing in minute forms of infinite variety : small Mol- 
luska (soft animals inhabiting shells) ; Crustacea (with artic- 



INHABITANTS OF THE SEA- WEED. 91 

ulated limbs and hard coverings;, and luminous creatures, 
as Salpcp, of Avliich vast gelatinous shoals are met with at sea, 
associated in a round mass like a chain, transparent, and of 
beautiful colors, of which, we are told, that during a journey 
of nearly eight hundred miles, they were thickly abundant 
throughout the track of the ship in the ocean. Eucli por- 
tion of the vast masses of floating seaweed consists — when 
carefully examined — of a little densely populated world, be- 
ing crow^ded with living beings, all active and full of bust- 
ling animation — strange-shaped little fishes, bright sea-slugs, 
tiny shells of the nautilus tribe, grotesque sea-spiders, and 
whole gangs of odd crabs, jelly-fish, and transparent shrimps. 
" The number of living creatures of all orders," observes 
Darwin, " whose existence intimately depends on the kelp 
(marine plants) is wonderful. A great volume might be 
w^ritten describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of 
seeweed. Almost all the leaves, excepting those on the sur- 
face, are so thickly encrusted wdth coralines as to be of a 
white color. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some 
inhabited by simple hydra-like Polypi, others by more or- 
ganized kinds and beautiful compound Ascidice (from the 
Greek askos, a bottle or pouch, these little molluscs resem- 
bling sacs everywhere closed, except at two orifices.) In- 
numerable Crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On 
shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, 
cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, and animals 
of a multitude of forms all fall out together. Often as I re- 
curred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover 
animals of new and curious structures. I can only compare 
these great aquatic forests of the Southern Hemisphere with 
the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any 
country a forest were destroyed, I do not believe nearly so 
many species of animals would perish as would here from the 
destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant 
numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find 



92 iii^A JSETTLES. 

food or shelter; with their destruction, the many cormorants 
and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and porpoises, would 
soon perish also." 

How elevating- is the thought that amidst all this pro- 
digious variety and profusion, the boundless extent of which 
no human mind can conceive, yet the minutest animated par- 
ticle that is revealed by the microscope is governed by the 
same laws that regulate the highest objects in creation! 

"Eacli moss, 
Each sliell, eacli crawling insect, holds a rank 
Important in the scale of Him who framed 
This scale of beings; holds a rank which, lost. 
Would break the chain, and leave a gap behind, 
Which Nature's self would rue." 

Very interesting is the study of those curious inhabitants 
of the ocean, constituting vyhat are termed by naturalists 
AcalephcB, as has been previously mentioned, but which are 
more commonly known by such names as jelly-fish, sea-blub- 
ber, etc., and are sometimes called sea-nettles. Most of 
them were included in the Linnaean genus Medusa, and the 
name Medusce is still frequently applied to them. They 
abound in all parts of the ocean, although some are tropical 
and others belong to cold latitudes. Some are of a large 
size, reaching two feet in diameter, and others are very 
small. They are of an extremely soft jelly tissue, which in 
most of them, and all in the true Medusse, is unsupported 
by any harder substance. The latter comprise various 
species that shine with great splendor in the water. The 
South Atlantic abounds with them, and much amusement 
may be derived in a long sea voyage by observing these 
beautiful organisms, for endless are the moulds in which 
prolific Nature has cast them. Some are shaped like a 
mushroom, others are like ribbons, or globular, flat or bell- 
shaped; others again resemble a bunch of berries. Their 
motions are generally slow, their sensations dull and directed 




iiijiiil^Vw 




7 ^r> ^ ""^ 




FLEET OK MEDUS.-E. 



94 SEA WORMS. 

entirely to the procuring of food. They often float without 
any apparent animation, trusting in the winds and waves to 
waft them about, and to carry them their food ; some keep 
a little beneath the surface, and propel themselves by con- 
tracting their pellucid disks. They have been termed the 
" living jellies of the deep," and some are endowed with an 
acrid secretion, which irritates the skin, and has thus caused 
them to be termed sea-nettles. 

" Those living jellies wliicli the flesh inflame. 
Fierce as a nettle, and from that tlie name; 
Some in huge masses, some that you may bring 
In the small compass of a lady's ring. 

Figured b}' hand Divine — there's not a gem 
Wrought by man's art to be compared to them; 
Soft, brilliant, tender, through the wave they glow, 
And make the moonbeam brighter where they flow." 

There is one large species common in the Straits of Singa- 
pore dreaded by the Malays on account of the violence of 
this power. 

Sometimes these animals are colorless, and as transparent 
as crystal; others are embellished with the most brilliant 
hues, and seem as if adorned with the richest enamel. Ste- 
vens, dne of the first voyagers to the East Indies, describes 
the jelly-fish he saw in the Gulf of G-uinea as " a thing swim- 
ming on the water, like a cock's comb, but the color much 
fairer, which comb standeth upon a thing almost like the 
swimmer of a fish in color and bigness." 

Another curious and Avidely-distributed class of marine 
animals are the Annelides or Sea- JVorms, the bodies being- 
composed of rings and joints. Some species are only met 
with in the high seas, swimming freely, while most of the 
others are to be found on the sea-shore, burrowing in the 
sand or mud, or living under stones, or amidst seaweed. A 
few construct a sheath or case for themselves, in which they 



THEIR WONDEllFUL BEAUTY. 95 

ordinarily live, but which are not essential to the existence 
of the tenant, as they can leave it without inconvenience, and 
wander at liberty for their food elsewhere. Their bodies are 
formed of more or less numerous rings, each of which is 
furnished with feet, which are the chief organs of motion, 
and are truly wonderful. They are generally in the form of 
small tubercles, and for the most part are composed of two 
branches. Their summit or tip is frequently armed with 
one or more bundles of bristles, which play an important 
part in the history of the animals. They form an orna- 
mental appendage to the worm, and at the same time are 
used as organs of defence and offence. Notwithstanding 
they live in situations in which they are seldom seen by the 
human eye, yet in some species these organs have a remark- 
able degree of brilliancy, shining with a metallic lustre and 
splendor of the richest kind. The common Sea-Mouse, for in- 
stance, has a very large bundle of them attached to each foot, 
which are very fine and of considerable length. Gold, azure, 
purple, and green play on their surface in a thousand reflec- 
tions, and these rainbow colors are in perfect harmony with 
the changing reflections and rings of the body. The wing 
of the butterfly has not received a more brilliant dress than 
these worms, concealed at the bottom of the waters, and 
sometimes buried in black and fetid mud. They are bril- 
liant as gold, and changeable to every hue of the rainbow. 
The colors they present are not surpassed in beauty by the 
scale-like feathers of the humming-bird nor by the most 
brilliant gems. These bristles, however, are as useful as 
they are ornamental. Surrounded on every side by enemies, 
usually dwelling in the waters where the worms live, they 
require powerful weapons of offence for resistance or for 
securing their prey. 

Some species of these worms are armed with a weapon 
like a harpoon, a lancet, or a knife. Some have an appen- 
dage, falchion-shaped, and others a bayonet fixed upon a 



96 THE NEREIDS. 

musket, while others present the appearance of a barbed 
arrow. These weapons are used to pierce the bodies of 
their enemies, and they frequently leave them in the wounds 
they have made. The tubercles of the feet, from which the 
barbed arrow-shaped bristles spring, are, in reality, quivers 
full of arrows, stored there for the use of the animals to pro- 
tect them from violence ; or, as Gosse fancifully observes, 
" You may imagine you behold the armory of some bel- 
ligerent sea-fairy, with stores of arms enough to accouter a 
numerous host." 

The number of such-like weapons in these worms is im- 
mense. " Let me ask the naturalist," says Dr. Johnson, " to 
count the number which may be required to furnish the 
garniture of a single individual. There are worms which 
have five hundred feet on each side : each foot has two 
branches, and each branch has at least one spine and one 
brush of bristles, some of them simple, some of them com- 
pound. This individual has therefore two thousand spines 
at least, and if we reckon ten bristles to each brush, it has 
also twenty thousand of them! Let us look a little further, 
not merely to the exquisite finish of each bristle, but to the 
means by which the host is put in motion. There is a set 
of muscles to push them forth from their port-holes ; there is 
another to replace each and all of them within their proper 
cases ; and the uncounted crowds of these muscles neither 
twist nor knot together, but play in their courses, regulated 
by a will that controls them more effectually than any brace ; 
now spurring them to convulsive energy, now stilling 
them to rest, and then putting them into action with an ease 
and grace that charm us into admiration, and fix the belief 
that even these creeping things participate largely in the 
happiness diffused throughout creation!" 

The Nereids, which belong to the same class of sea-Avorms, 
have a long body, narrowed towards the inferior extremity, 
and divided into numerous segments, with well-developed 



"JUMPING johnnies:' 97 

appendages, a head, eyes, horns or i'eelers, and, in general, 
a large proboscis, armed with a pair of jaws, curved, hooked, 
and strong, with teeth on the inner margin. The Pearly 
Nereis, which is one of the finest and commonest of the kind, 
is thus described : " The upper surface is of a warm fawn 
brown, but the beautiful flashes of rainbow blue that play 
on it in the changing light, and the exquisite pearly opales- 
cence of the delicate pink beneath, are so conspicuous as to 
have secured for it the title of ' pearly' par excellence." 

Another species of the group of the Nereids, the " White- 
Bag Worm," a common inhabitant of the shores of Great 
Britain, varying from six to ten inches in length, is of a beau- 
tiful pearly lustre, exactly similar to that of mother-of-pearl. 
The foot, when magnified, resembles a horse's hoof, and is a 
very marvelous piece of Nature's mechanism. The animal 
swims rapidly in the sea. Another species is of a rich green- 
ish color, varied with bluish shades, reflecting a metallic lus- 
tre, and varying like the hues of the rainbow. 

With the tribe of sea-worms may be also mentioned the 
Sea-Leach or Skate-sucker, so named because the worm lives 
on fish, and attaches itself chiefly to the skate, from which 
it is scarcely ever found free. The mouth of this animal is 
not provided with jaws, so it sucks up the juices of the body 
of its host by a kind of pumping process. 

The Leaping- Worms, found on the coasts of Borneo, are 
curious creatures. Each step in advance to take them 
causes them to jump in a rapid manner, and in a series of 
leaps they reach the margin of the water, when it is impos- 
sible to capture them. When lying at rest, they are scarce- 
ly distinguishable from the mud in which they lie. They are 
wedge-shape in form*, about three or four inches long, with 
flat pointed tails, and broad heads and prominent eyes. The 
sailors have nicknamed them " Jumping Johnnies." 



CHAPTER VI. 

CORAL— THE BOCK BUILDERS. 






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^^fe 


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|flO art can imitate the delicate tracery, the rich color, 
■^^ and the singular forms that coral assumes. It has been 
called by some, the " Queen of the Ocean," and no term 
could be more appropriate. A celebrated naturalist, on 
viewing the coral-beds of the Red Sea, exclaimed, " Where 



BEAUTY OF COliAL. 99 

is tlie Paradise of flowers that can rival such variety and 
beauty?" 

Mr. J. Beete Jukes, in giving his own vivid impressions 
on seeing some coral-beds in the Pacific, says: 

" I had hitherto been rather disappointed by the aspect of 
the coral-reefs, so far as beauty was concerned; and, though 
very wonderful, I had not seen in them much to admire. 
One day, however, on the lee side of one of the outer reefs, 
I had reason to change my opinion. In a small bay of the 
inner edge of the reef was a sheltered nook, where the ex- 
treme slope was well exposed, and where every coral was 
in full life and luxuriance." 

Mr. Jukes describes them as of every shape ; some deli- 
cate and leaf-like, others Avith large branching stems, and 
others, again, exhibiting an assemblage of interlacing twigs 
of the most delicate and exquisite workmanship. Their 
colors were unrivaled, vivid greens contrasting with more 
sober browns and yellows, mingled with rich shades of pur- 
ple, from pale pink to deep blue. Among the branches, cov- 
ered with their beautiful drapery of ocean vegetation, float- 
ed fish of various colors, radiant with metallic green or 
crimson, or fantastically banded with yellow and black 
stripes. Patches of clear white sand were seen here and 
there for the floor, with dark hollows and recesses. All 
these, seen through the clear crystal water, the ripple of 
which gave motion and quick play of light and shadow to the 
whole, formed a scene of rarest beauty, and left nothing to 
be desired by the eye, either in elegance of form, or bril- 
liancy and harmony of coloring. 

It is only in the ocean, however, that the glorious homes 
of the rock-builders are to be seen in perfection ; for, im- 
mediately after drawing the coral from the water, so rapidly 
does atmospheric exposure aff"ect them, that it would be 
diflScult to recognize the lovely objects which a moment be- 
fore were glowing in the still waters. 



100 BELIEVED TO BE FLO WEBS. 

Such are the grand and mysterious operations of Provi- 
dence in the depths of the ocean! We will now attempt to 
describe the singular animals to whom the accomplishment 
of these marvels is due, but must first mention that coral was 
formerly supposed to be a marine plant. This ancient no- 
tion rested not merely on its shrub-like form, but from the 
circumstance that its branches are covered with a soft coat- 
ing while in the water, but which dries up immediately on 
its extraction. An Italian naturalist perceived small objects 
in the coral-cells, which he thought were flowers ; but at 
length a French physician at Marseilles discovered that 
there was life in the coral, and that these assumed flowers 
were in reality minute animals. Thus, by the aid of the 
microscope, an object which might be said to belong to 
mineralogy, and by its trunk and branches to botany, was 
now admitted to a rank in the animal world. This discovery, 
the result of thirty years' studious research into the nature 
of coral, was laughed at by many persons at the time and 
treated as absurd, but Linnaeus, the great Swedish naturalist, 
saw the truth at once, and did not hesitate to place coral at 
the head of the zoophytes, or animal plants, an appropriate 
designation, because it indicates at the same time the double 
nature of the substances. 

A common characteristic of these animals is that their 
mouths are surrounded by radiating tentacles or feelers, ap- 
pendages by which they attach themselves to surrounding 
objects, arranged somewhat like the rays of a flower. By 
this will be understood the term polypi, by which these ani- 
mals are also known, signifying "many" and "foot." Of 
these the individuals of a few families are separate and per- 
fect in themselves, but the greater number of zoophytes are 
compound beings, or each zoophyte consists of an indefinite 
number of individuals, or polyps, connected together. 

This polyp is an extraordinary creature, and has a tenac- 
ity of life truly remarkable. If one cut off the branch of a 



HEPRODUCTIVE tOWER OF THE POLYP. 101 

tree, or sever the limb of un animal, these parts will wither 
and decompose by passing into other parts of matter. Cut 
a tree carelessly, and its natural s^^mmetry is disfigured ; or 
slit it down its centre, it is destroyed. Animals thus treat- 
ed die, with the exception of the polyp, for it will put 
forth new limbs, form a new head or tail, and, if divided, be- 
come two separate existences. 

If a polyp be cut in two, the fore part, which contains 
the head and mouth and arms, lengthens itself, creeps, and 
eats on the same day. The tail part forms a new bead and 
mouth ; at the Avounded end shoot forth arms ; if turned 
inside out the parts at once accommodate themselves to these 
new conditions. If the body were cut into ten pieces, every 
portion would become a new perfect living animal. A polyp 
has been cut lengthways at seven in the morning, and in 
eight hours afterwards, each part had devoured a worm as 
long as itself ! How astonishing it is to see a creature so 
apparently frail in structure, possessing the actions, sensa- 
tions, and powers of higher organized beings ! The stomach 
is without membrane or cell ; the outside surface-cells form 
a kind of double skin, and the inside consists of a wall of 
cells running crosswise, with a velvet-like surface, being red 
or brown grains held together by a sort of gluey substance. 

These minute builders of the ocean rocks make their 
habitations, and form the wonderful coral groves and islands, 
sometimes hundreds of miles in extent. 

The various species of these animals appear to be fur- 
nished with glands containing gluten, converting the carbo- 
nate of lime which is in the ocean, and other earthy matters, 
into a fixed and hard substance, twisted — as may be ob- 
served in coral — in every variety of shape. 

If a piece of coral be examined with the microscope, it 
will be seen to be covered with a multitude of small pits, which 
are cells of the most beautiful construction, made with the 
greatest regularity, and in such a manner that the most ex- 



102 NATURE OF CORAL. 

perienced builder would pronounce faultless. How this is 
effected, and what peculiar instincts the little toilers of the 
ocean possess that enable them to construct their dwellings 
with s'lch mathematical nicety, are among those mysteries 
of Nature we cannot comprehend ; but it is certain that 
large masses of solid rock are framed by these animals, ever 
working to the music of the waves. "Verily," observes 
Baker, " for my own part, the more I look into Nature's 
works, the sooner I am inclined to believe of her, even those 
things that seem incredible." But here we have the certainty 
of Natures operations : we know that islands and continents 
are constructed for the habitation of man by these minute 
animals ; that mountains like the Appenines, and regions to 
which our own country is but trifling in comparison, are the 
results of their toil. South-west of Malabar, there is a chain 
of reefs and islets of coral extending four hundred and 
eighty geographical miles ; on the east side of New Holland 
are unbroken reefs of three hundred and fifty miles long ; 
and between that and New Guinea, a coral formation of 
seven hundred miles in length. 

The process by which these great changes are effected is 
still going on extensively in the Pacific and Indian Seas, 
where multitudes of coral islands emerge from the waves, 
and shoals and reefs, where the rock builders are ever busy, 
appear at small depths beneath the water. 

How truly wonderful it is to know that the Polynesian 
Archipelago, now one of the great divisions of the globe, 
has its foundations formed of coral reefs, the spontaneous 
growth of once living animals! As one generation of the 
coral-builders dies and leaves its chalky remains, another 
succeeds, until the mass of coral appears above the ocean, 
when the formation ceases, for it is only in that element the 
laborers can live. 

"Ye build ! ye build ! but ye enter not in, 

Like tbe tribes wliom the desert devoured in their sin ; 



WONDERS OF THE CORAL FORMATION. 103 

From the land of promise ye fade and die, 
Ere its verdure gleams on your wearied eye." 

One marvel ceasea here, and another commences. The 
vegetation of the sea, cast on its surface, undergoes a chem- 
ical change ; tlie rains assist in filling up the little cells of 
the dead animals ; the fowls of the air and the ocean find a 
resting-place, and assist in clothing the rocks ; mosses car- 
pet the surface ; seed brought by birds, plants carried by 
the oceanic current, animaculas floating in the air live, prop- 
agate and die, and are succeeded through the assistance 
their remaias bestow by more advanced animal and veg- 
etable life ; and thus generation after generation exist and 
perish, until at length the coral island becomes a Paradise, 
filled with the choicest exotics, the most beautiful birds and 
delicious fruits. 

Here is a glowing theme for the imagination to dwell 
upon ! How wonderful to think that the surface of the 
globe is being changed by these diminutive living agents ; 
that in tropical climates they are encircling islands with 
belts of coral, enlarging their coasts, forming stupendous 
reefs, and working out the plans and the will of the great 
Architect of the Universe ! 

We feel surprised, when travelers tell us of the vast di- 
mensions of the Pyramids and other great ruins ; but how 
utterly insignificant are the greatest of these when com- 
pared to the mountains of stone accumulated by the agency 
of various minute and tender animals ! 

How wonderful is the instinct and design of self-preser- 
vation in insects so exceedingly minute as the coral workers 
or ocean rock builders! Pope graphically says: 

" Who taught the natives of the field and wood 
To shun their poison or to choose their food ? 
Prescient, the tides and tempests to withstand. 
Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand?" 



104 INSTINCT OF THE ROCK BUILDERS. 

To protect their dwellings from the violent storms by 
which the waters of the deep are frequently agitated, they 
erect a breastwork^ Avhich effectually shields them from 
wind and wave. In the early stages of their operations they 
work perpendicularly, so that the highest part of the coral 
wall, on reaching the surface, is on the windward side, 
and affords protection to the busy laborers in their opera- 
tions. These breastworks, or breakwaters, will resist more 
powerful seas than if formed of granite, rising as they do fre- 
quently from a depth of a thousand or fifteen hundred feet, 
and adapted in a way that no human skill or foresight could 
equal to the utmost powers of the heavy billows that contin- 
ually lash against them. 

Another observation we may make on this subject, is, 
that in one species a remarkable arrangement is found; the 
upper openings of the cells in which they live, have a vase- 
like form, shutting Avith a lid: when the animal wishes to 
expand itself, it opens the lid like a trap-door, and protrudes 
itself; and when it re-contracts itself and retreats, the lid 
falls and closes the aperture so exactly that the animal is 
perfectly protected. 

Coral differs in quality and color. The common Red 
Coral which is used for many ornamental purposes, and is 
so much admired for its fine color, is chiefly obtained from 
the Mediterranean, in some parts of which extensive " fish- 
eries " are carried on. It is brought up from the depths of 
the sea by means of a kind of grappling apparatus dragged 
after a boat, the pieces being broken from the -bottom by 
beams of wood which are sunk by weights, and then en- 
tangled among hemp. Great care is necessary to preserve 
the pieces from being lacerated. Red coral has a shrub-like 
branching form, and grows to the height of about a foot, with 
the thickness of a little finger. Much of the coral obtained 
from the Mediterranean is sent to India, where it is much 
prized by the natives. Many of the arms and horse-capari- 



VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF CORAL. 105 

sons of the Oriental chiefs are studded with this beautiful 
ornament. 

Red coral is also found in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, 
Messina, the Dardanelles, and a few other places. The 
French and the Sicilians are the only people who make coral- 
fishing a regular source of interest. As the precious sub- 
stance requires eight or ten years to come to any perfection 
by the labors of its industrious architects, the spots 
where it is finished are divided each into ten portions, and 
only one of these is finished in the year, so that each may 
remain to " grow " during the time necessary to bring it to 
maturity. 

Black Coral is most esteemed, but it is scarce : the red, 
white, and yellow are chiefly used for ornamental purposes. 
The Pink Coral is esteemed for its scarcity. 

The ingenuity of man continually exerted to imitate na- 
ture, and frequently with great success, is practised in the 
fabrication of false coral, made with powdered marble and 
fish-glue, and colored with vermilion and red lead. 

Coral beads were anciently worn in India, as sacred amu- 
lets or charms. The Romans tied little branches round chil- 
dren's necks to keep off" the influence of the "evil eye," a 
superstition which had also many believers in the middle 
ages among the inhabitants of England, and which still exists 
in some foreign countries. 

Coral was said to preserve houses from the effects of 
thunder storms, and to be of much finer color when worn by 
men than by women. Even at the present time there are 
people so credulous as to believe that coral necklaces be- 
come pale when the wearer is about to be ill. There is no 
doubt that coral loses its color by time and exposure, and 
this may have given rise to the superstition. The small 
pointed branches, mounted with a ring at one end for sus- 
pension, are extensively manufactured at Naples as " charms ;" 
and Ferdinand I., King of that country, was a devout be- 



106 PERILS OF THE GOBAL BEEFS. 

liever in their efficacy, and used to point the coral towards 
anyone whom he suspected of having a malicious influence. 




The vast coral reefs are often the source of great dangers 
to navigators, and numberless instances have occurred of 
entire or partial destruction of ships, and heavy losses of life 
in consequence. One case, that happened some years ago 
in the Indian Seas, nearly proved fatal to the whole crew of 
a fine large ship called the " Cabalve." The story of this 
shipwreck, as related in a letter to a friend by one of the 
surviving officers, is deeply interesting. The vessel was 
bound for Bombay, and was proceeding on its way at a quick 
rate, with every feeling of security in those on board, 
when one morning, between four and five o'clock, the weather 
being dark and cloudy, an alarm was given of "breakers 
ahead!" Every effort was instantly made to free the vessel 
from her dangerous position ; but in vain, for she struck on 
the coral reef, and the shock was so violent that every per- 
son was instantly on deck, with horror and amazement de- 
picted upon every countenance at what appeared to be cer- 
tain destruction. The vessel soon became fixed upon the 
coral reef, and the sea struck upon her with tremendous 



SHIPWRECK ON THE CORAL REEF. 107 

violence, staving in the exposed side, washing tlirough the 
hatchways, and tearing up the decks. 

" We were now," observes the officer alluded to, " uncer- 
tain of our distance from a place of safety: the surf broke 
over the vessel in a fearful cascade ; the crew despairing 
and clinging to her sides to avoid its violence, while the ship 
was breaking up with a rapidity and crashing noise, which, 
added to the roar of the breakers, drowned the voices of the 
officers. The masts were cut away to ease the ship, and the 
cutter cleared and launched in readiness. When the long 
wished-for dawn at length broke upon us, instead of alleviating 
it rather added to our distress. We found that the ship had 
run on the south-east extremity of a coral reef, surrounding 
on the eastern side those sand-banks or islands in the Indian 
Ocean, called by the natives Carajos ; the nearest of these 
was about three miles distant, but not the least appearance 
of verdure could be discovered, or the slightest trace of any- 
thing on which we might hope to subsist. In two or three 
places some rocks in the shape of pyramids appeared above 
the rest like distant sails, and were repeatedly cheered as 
such by the crew, until it was perceived that they had no 
motion, and the delusion vanished. The masts had fallen 
towards the reef, the ship having fortunately canted in that 
direction, and the boat was therefore protected in some 
measure from the surf. Our commander, whom a strong 
sense of misfortune had entirely deprived of presence of 
mind, was earnestly requested to get into the boat, but he 
would not, thinking it unsafe. He maintained his station on 
the mizzen-topmast that lay along the wreck, the surf which 
was rushing round the bow and stern continually overwhelm- 
ing him. I w^as myself close to him on the same spar, and 
in this situation we saw many of our shipmates meet an un- 
timely end, being either dashed against the rocks or swept 
away by the breakers. 

" The large cutter full of officers and men now cleared a 



108 BREAKINO-UP OF THE VESSEL. 

passage through the mass of wreck, and bemg furnished 
with oars, watched the proper moment and pushed off for 
the coral reef, which she fortunately gained in safety, but 
they were all washed out of her in an instant by a tremen- 
dous surf; yet out of more than sixty persons whom she 
contained, only one man was drowned. Our captain, seeing 
this, wished he had taken advice which was now of no use. 
Finding I could no longer maintain myself on the same spar, 
and seeing the captain in a very exhausted state, I en- 
treated him to return to the wreck ; but he replied that 
since we must all inevitably perish, I should not think of 
him, but seek my own preservation. An enormous breaker 
now burst on us with tremendous violence, so that I scarce- 
ly knew what had occurred to him afterwards, being washed 
down by successive seas. 

" At length, after most desperate efforts, I was thrown 
on the reef, half drowned and severely cut by the sharp 
coral, when I silently offered up thanks for my preservation, 
and crawling up the reef, waved my hand to encourage 
those who remained behind to make an effort. The cap- 
tain, however, was not to be seen, and most of the others 
had returned to the wreck, and were employed in getting 
the small cutter into the water, Avhich they accomplished, 
and safely reached the shore. About noon, when we had 
all left the ship, she was entirely broken up. The whole of 
the upper works — from the after-part of the forecastle to 
the break of the poop-deck — had separated, and was driv- 
ing in towards the reef. Most of the lighter cargo had 
floated out of her : bales of cloth, cases of wine, puncheons 
of spirits, barrels of gunpowder, hogsheads of beer, and 
other articles, lay strewed on the shore, together with a 
chest of tools. Finding the men beginning to commit the 
usual excesses, we stove in the heads of the spirit-casks to 
prevent mischief, and endeavored to direct their attention 
to the general benefit. The tide was flowing fast and we 



ESCAPE TO A DESERT ISLAND. 



109 



saw that the reef must soon be covered; we therefore con- 
veyed the boats to a phice of safety, and filling them with all 
tlie provisions that could be collected, proceeded to the 
highest sand-bank, as the only place which held out the re- 
motest chance of safety. 

"The people now collected together to ascertain who of 
the crew had perished, when sixteen were missing: the 
captain, surgeon's assistant and fourteen seamen. We di- 
vided our men into parties, each headed by an officer : some 
were sent to the wreck and along the beach in search of 
provisions, others to roll up the hogsheads of beer and butts 
of water that had floated on shore ; but the greater number 
were employed in hauling the two cutters up, which the 
carpenters were directed to repair." 

Such is a graphic account of a fearful shipwreck on a 
barren coral reef, from one of the survivors among the crew. 
One can thus form an idea of the dangers to wliich seamen 
are exposed by these colossal works of tiny polyps: 

" For often the dauntless mariner knows 

That he must sink beneath. 
Where the diamond on trees of coral grows 

In the emerald halls of death." 





CHAPTER VII. 

PEARLS. 

" Ocean's gems, the purest 
Of Nature's works ! What days of weary journeyings 
What sleepless nights, what toils on land and sea, 
Are borne by men to gain thee ! " 

MONG the rare and beautiful objects of cre- 
ation may be mentioned Pearls, which rank 
with the most valuable of precious gems, and 
are highly prized as ornamental appendages 
by the rich and the noble in all countries. 
While admiring these jewels, you may not know, perhaps, 
at what perils and cost of life they are obtained, for it is neces- 
sary to seek for them in the depths of the ocean, and al- 
though the divers employed for this purpose are very strong 
and expert, still in the Indian Sea and the Eastern Arch- 
ipelago, where the true pearl-oysters are found, sharks are 
numerous, and it is necessary to take every precaution 
against those voracious monsters. This occupation was 
formerly considered so dangerous that only condemned 
criminals were thus employed, but many thousand persons 
now obtain a livelihood by these means in the Persian Gulf 
and at Ceylon. At one time, when the Dutch had possession 
of this beautiful island, the number of large pearls obtained 
there was considerable. 

These pearl-divers are a hardy race of men, singularly 
adapted to their hazardous occupation, and very super- 
stitious ; for before commencing operations, they consult 



PEARL DIVERS AND SHARK CHARMERS. Ill 

the " shark-charmer," a wise-acre who pretends to have the 
power of preserving his dupes from tlie angry jaws of the 
great sea-scourge, and makes a good living by it, the office 
being handed down from father to son as hereditary. The 
divers have such confidence in their powers, or spells, that 
they will not descend to the bottom of the deep without 
knowing that one of the enchanters is present in the expe- 
dition. Two of the " charmers " are constantly employed, 
one going out regularly in the head pilot's boat, while the 
other performs certain ceremonies on shore, such as consult- 
ing the auguries, which, if auspicious, ensure the divers in 
their perilous submarine occupations by closing the mouths 
of the sharks at the word of command. The " charmer " is 
shut up in a room where nobody can see him, from the 
period of the sailing of the boats until their return. He has 
before him a brass basin filled with water, containing one 
male and one female fish made of silver. If any accident 
should happen from a shark at sea, it is believed that one of 
these fishes is seen to bite the other. The divers also say 
that if the conjuror is disatisfied, he has the power of mak- 
ing the sharks attack them, on which account he is sure of 
receiving liberal presents daily. 

The Gulf of Manaar, where the pearls are found (and 
which separates Ceylon from the continent of India on the 
north-west), abounds in sharks ; and, however the divers 
may consider their lives " charmed," the risks are lessened 
by the sea-monsters being alarmed at the unusual number of 
boats, the noise of the crews, and the constant descending 
of the baskets for the shells. It is not improbable that the 
dark skins of the divers are also some protection. It seems 
that the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf in former times 
were so conscious of this advantage of color, that they were 
accustomed to blacken their limbs in order to baffle their 
powerful enemy. This is related by one of the earliest of 
Arabian geographers, who adds, " that the divers filled their 



112 METHOD PURSUED BY CINGALESE DIVERS. 

ears with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed their nos- 
trils with a piece of tortoise-shell." 

The pearl fishery of the Bahrem Islands (in the Persian 
Gulf) produces a most abundant supply of these ocean gems, 
the produce of a two months' season realizing nearly five 
hundred thousand dollars of our money. Persians are chief- 
ly engaged in this pursuit, and the divers belong to that 
nation. 

The method pursued by the Cingalese divers is very sim- 
ple. They proceed in boats to the place of operation at 
the season, which lasts about two months, commencing in 
February and ending in April. Each boat contains about 
twenty men, half of whom are divers, while the others row 
the boats and assist their companions in reaching the sur- 
face of the water after diving. Five of the divers descend 
at the time, and when they come up, the other five take 
their turn ; the fatigue and exhaustion of the body is very 
great in continuing under water, and a minute — in some 
cases a minute and a half, or nearly two minutes — is about 
the utmost time these men can sustain their breath. Many 
divers suffer severely from overtaxing their powers of endur- 
ance, and bloodshot eyes and spitting of blood are common 
to them. It is to be hoped that the modern improvements 
in diving-bells and suitable apparatus for divers will be 
much more generally adopted than they have been in a few 
places, that life may be rendered more secure, and other dis- 
tressing consequences be obviated. 

To facilitate the descent of the diver into the water, a 
stone weighing about twenty pounds is suspended over the 
side of the boat, with a loop attached to it, in which he in- 
serts his foot; a bag of network is attached to his toes; his 
right hand grasps the rope, and after inhaling a full breath, 
he presses his nostrils with his left hand. He now raises 
his body as high as possible above the water to give force 
to his descent, and liberating the stone from its fastenings, 



114 SEPARATION FROM TEE OYSTER. 

he sinks rapidly below tlie surface. As soon as he reaches 
the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, throwing 
himself on his face, collects into his bag as many oysters as 
he can. This, on a signal, is hauled to the surface, the diver 
springing to the rope as it is drawn up. The sea, at the 
oy-ster-beds, is generally from twenty-four to sixty feet deep. 
The number of oysters thus collected varies; sometimes 
several thousand are obtained in one day, and at other times 
a few hundred only. The oysters are landed from the boats, 
and are placed underground to putrify, and it is amidst such 
a mass of corruption that the pearl, 

' Purest of Nature's works," 
is obtained. 

The pearl-fishers in ancient times used to place the shells 
in vessels filled with salt, and leave them until all the fish 
were dissolved, the gems remaining at the bottom. The or- 
dinary operation now is, that as soon as putrification is suf- 
ficiently advanced, the oysters are placed in a trough, and 
sea-water is thrown over them. They are then shaken and 
washed. Inspectors stand at each end of the trough, to see 
that the laborers secrete none of the pearls, and others are 
in the rear to examine the shells thown out. The workmen 
are not allowed to raise their hands to their mouths while 
washing the pearls, lest they might attempt to swallow some. 
Sometimes the pearls, instead of adhering to the shells as is 
usually the case, are in the bodies of the oysters, which are 
boiled before being thrown aside as useless. The number 
of pearls in a shell differs: one may contain a considerable 
number, while hundreds are without any. 

To give an idea of the extent to which the pearl fishery 
in Ceylon has been carried for several ages, the shore in 
some parts of the island has been raised to the height of 
many feet by enormous mounds of shells, millions having 
been flung into heaps that extend to the distance of many 
miles. 



TUE PEARL ISLANDS. 115 

At the Pearl Islands, near the Isthmus of Panama, the 
divers use a very simple method of obtaining the oysters. 
They traverse the bay in canoes that hold eight men, all of 
whom dive in the water to a depth of from fifty to sixty feet, 
where they remain sometimes nearly two minutes, during 
which they collect all the oysters they can in their hands, 
and rise to deposit them in the canoes, repeating the oper- 
ation for several hours. 

In Sweden the oysters are taken with a pair of long tongs. 
The fishermen are in small boats, painted white on the bot- 
tom, which reflects to a great depth, and enables them to 
see the oysters and seize them. 

The most beautiful and costly pearls are obtained from 
the East, and are called " Oriental ;"the color of those found 
in Ceylon is generally a bluish silvery white, but they are 
met with of several other hues. Those from the Persian 
Gulf are of great purity and richness. The preparation of 
the pearls for market occupies a considerable number of 
the inhabitants of Ceylon. After being thoroughly cleaned, 
they are rounded and polished with a powder made of the 
pearls themselves, and arranged into classes according to 
their various sizes and quality. They are then drilled and 
strung together, the largest being generally sent to India, 
where they are highly prized, while the smaller ones are 
forwarded to Europe. The operation of drilling is a very 
delicate one, and the black people are very expert in it. It 
is done with a wooden machine in the form of an inverted 
cone, in the upper flat surface of which are pits to receive 
the pearls. The holes are made by spindles of various 
sizes, which revolve in a wooden head by the action of a 
bow-handle, to which they are attached. During the oper- 
ation (which is done by one hand, while the other presses 
on the machine), the pearls are moistened occasionally, and 
the whole is done with astonishing rapidity. 

As to how the pearl is formed within the oyster-shell, 



116 HOW PEARLS ABE FORMED. 

is a subject that has been much debated in ancient and mod- 
ern times. The illustrious Pliny (who died in the year 79), 
as one of the most enlightened of the old philosophers, says 
that " the pearl was produced by the dews of heaven fall- 
ing into the open shells at the breeding-time. The quality 
of the pearl varied according to the amount of the dew 
imbibed, being lustrous if that were pure, dull if it were 
foul ; cloudy weather spoilt the color, lightning stopped the 
growth, and thunder made the shell-fish unproductive, and 
to eject hollow husks called bubbles." 

The same naturalist also relates a story how the shoals 
of pearl-oysters had " a king, distinguished by his age and 
size, exactly as bees have a queen, wonderfully expert in 
keeping his subject out of harm's way, but if the divers once 
succeeded in catching him, the rest straying about blindly, 
fell an easy prey. Although defended by a body-guard of 
sharks, and dwelling among the rocks of the abyss, they 
cannot be preserved from ladies' ears." 

These are very pretty and fanciful ideas, as were many 
fictions of the pagans, and the British poet Moore, has al- 
luded to them in one of his sweet melodies : — 

"And precious the tear as that rain from the sky 
Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea." 

Some naturalists have suggested that pearls are the un- 
fructified eggs of the oyster, others that the jewel is a mor- 
bid concretion produced by the endeavor of the animal in 
the shell to fill up cavities ; the general opinion, however, 
seems to prevail thus : most shelly animals which are 
aquatic are provided with a fluid secretion with which they 
line their dwellings to render them smooth and polished for 
their tenderly-formed bodies. This fine even lining is seen 
in shells of every description. The fluid is laid in extreme- 
ly thin semi-transparent threads, which gives the interior of 
the shell the beautiful play of color, so often observed. As 



CHINESE METUOD OF PROCURING PEARLS. 117 

for the pearl in the shell, small rounded portions are formed 
in the lining, which are supposed to be the result of ac- 
cident, such as grains of sand or other substances getting 
into the shell, and, irritating the animal inside, causes it, by 
an instinct of nature, to cover the cause of offence, not hav- 
ing the power to remove it. As the fluid goes on regularly 
to supply the growth and wear of the shell, the prominences 
continue to increase, and being more brilliant than the rest 
of the shell, they become a pearl, a composition of carbon- 
ate of lime and a little animal matter. 

If a pearl is cut tranversely and observed through a mi- 
croscope, it will be found to consist of minute layers, 
resembling the rings which denote the ages of certain trees 
when cut in a similar manner. 

The Chinese, who are never at a loss for expedients, are 
in the habit of laying a string with five or six small pearls, 
separated by knots, inside the shells, when the fish are ex- 
posing themselves to the sun. These, after some years, are 
taken out, and found to be very large fine pearls. The same 
ingenious people also introduce into the shell of a mussel 
different substances such as mother of pearl, the beautiful 
white enamel which forms the greater part of the substance 
of most oyster shells, fixed to wires, which thus become 
coated with a more brilliant material. Another practice 
among the Chinese is to serve the purpose of a deception 
upon the credulous. They place small metal images of 
their god Buddha in the shells, which are soon covered with 
a pearly secretion, and become united to the shells. These 
are sold as miraculous proofs of the truth of their worship. 
The Chinese are also said to employ a means of procuring 
pearls artificially by the introduction of shot between the 
mouth of the animal and its shell. 

The pearl-oyster is not the only mollusk which produces 
pearls : an oyster with a thin transparent shell, which is 
used in China and elsewhere as a substitute for s'lass win- 



IIB 



PEARLS m ANCIENT TIMES. 



dows, produces small pearls, as also the fresh-water mussel 
of England, pinna, a genus of the same family with the 
pearl-mussel, and even in limpets. 




PEARL PRODUCING SHELLS. 



The ancients were extravagantly fond of these beautiful 
jewels: necklaces, bracelets, and earrings were worn in pro- 
fusion ; a string of pearls was estimated by a Roman writer 
at about forty thousand dollars of our money; the single 
pearl which Cleopatra dissolved and swallowed was valued 
at nearly four hundred thousand dollars ; and a similar act 



LARGE PEARLS. 119 

of folly is reported in later times, in the reign of Queen Eliz- 
abeth, when Sir Thomas Gresham, one of London's merchant 
princes, reduced a pearl to powder worth seventy-five thou- 
sand dollars, and drank it in a glass of wine to the health of 
his sovereign, in consequence of a wager with the Spanish 
ambassador that he would give a more costly dinner than 
the other. Quite as absurd was the notion in former times 
that powdered pearls were unfailing remedies in all stomach 
complaints. 

Pearls are esteemed according to their size, color, form, 
and lustre : the largest, usually about the dimensions of a small 
walnut, are called " paragons" and are very rare ; those the 
size of a small cherry are next in rarity, and are called "dia- 
dem" or head pearls. They receive names also according 
to their form, whether quite round, semicircular, or drum- 
form, or that of an ear-drop, pear, onion, or as they are 
otherwise irregularly shaped. The small pearls are termed 
" ounce pearls," on account of their being sold by weight, 
and the very smallest " seed pearls." 

The largest pearl on record is one, pear-shaped, brought 
from India in 1620, by Gongibusde Calais, and sold to Philip 
IV. of Spain. It weighed four hundred and eighty grains. 
The merchant, when asked by the monarch how he could 
venture to risk all his fortune in one little article, replied 
wnth great tact, "because he knew there was a King of 
Spain to buy it of him." This pearl was said to be in the 
possession of the princely family of Yousoppoff, in Russia. 

Runjeet Sing, the former possessor of the famous Koh-i- 
Noor diamond, had a string of pearls which was considered 
nearly equal in value to the " Mountain of Light." They 
were about three hundred in number, and the size of small 
marbles, all choice pearls, round and perfect both in shape 
and color. Two hours before he died he sent for all his 
jewels, and gave the magnificent string of pearls to a Hindoo 
temple. 







CHAPTER YIII. 

SPONGES. 

MONG ancient na- 
tions the sponge was 
used as a soft and elastic 
lining for the brazen hel- 
mets of their soldiers, and 
many other purposes. It 
has long been a matter of 
debate among naturalists 
whether sponges should be 
classed among the vegeta- 
ble or animal kingdoms; 
they are now generally 
placed under the order Zoo- 
phyte, or plant animals. 

Aristotle, the greatest of 
;iii' ii nt philosophers, who 
w-'- born three hundred 
md eighty-four years 
)efore Christ, de- 
cribed the sponge as 
stationary or root- 
ed animal: but 



EXPERIMENTS ON SPONGES. 121 

from other statements he made it is certain that he consid- 
ered its pkice as between the animal and vegetable. Some 
modern naturalists have placed sponges among marine vege- 
tables, and their appearance, if one casually looks at them, 
would seem to justify such an opinion ; but the researches 
of Mr. Ellis, a merchant of London, who made similar 
branches of natural history a particular pursuit, gave addi- 
tional interest to this case. In the course of his microscopic 
investigations, he was astonished at discovering that sponges 
possessed a system of pores and vessels, in which sea-water 
passed with all the appearance of the regular circulation of 
fluids in animal bodies, and a seeming purpose of conveying 
small minute animals to itself for food. 

Afterward, Dr. Grant gave the result of his experiments 
on the same subject. The account is so interesting that we 
will give it in his own words. " Having placed a portion of 
sponge in a watch-glass with some sea-water, I beheld for 
the first time the splendid spectacle of this living fountain 
vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent 
of liquid matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque 
masses, which it strewed everywhere around. The beauty 
and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long ar- 
rested my attention ; but after twenty-five minutes of con- 
stant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from 
fatigue, without having seen the torrent for an instant change 
its direction or diminish the rapidity of its course. In ob- 
serving another species, I placed two entire portions of this 
together in a glass of sea-water, with their orifices opposite 
to each other, at the distance of two inches. They appeared 
to the naked eye like two living batteries, and soon covered 
each other with the materials ejected. I placed one of them 
in a shallow vessel, and just covered its surface and highest 
orifice with water. On strewing some powdered chalk on 
the surface of the water, the currents were visible to a great 
distance - and on placing some pieces of cork or dry paper 



122 HOW SPONGES ABE OBTAINED. 

over the orifices, I could perceive them moving by the force 
of the currents at the distance of ten feet from the table on 
which the specimens rested." 

So interesting are the sponges, which, although ranked as 
creatures of very low intelligence, yet are by no means the 
least curious of those manifestations of the Divine Power 

" That built tlie palace of tlie sky. 
Formed tlie liglit wings that decorate the fly; 
The Power that wheels the circling planets round, 
Rears every infant floweret on the ground; 
That bounty which the mightest beings share, 
Feeds the least gnat that gilds the evening air." 

All of our young readers must be conscious of the useful 
qualities of the sponge, but many are unacquainted with the 
manner in which and where they are obtained. The finest 
qualities of sponge come from the Ottoman Archipelago, 
and form one of the principal articles of commerce with 
Turkey. The island of Calymnos is the principal station 
for the sponge fishery, and more than three hundred boats 
are employed, averaging each about six tons, and carrying 
six to eight men, of whom two are rowers. It may be 
readily seen that this business furnishes occupation for 
a great number of people. One thousand men are em- 
ployed in the Grecian Archipelago, alone ; and thou- 
sands besides with the necessary boats and appliances, 
are busy in the Gulf of Machia, on the Barbary Coast and 
elsewhere, so that in many hamlets in these latitudes, from 
May to September — the best diving time — only old men, 
women and children are to be seen. The finest qualities 
are sent in large quantities to our own country, and the com- 
mon and coarser kinds are forwarded to France, Austria 
and Constantinople. 

The average depth at which the best sponges are found 
is about one hundred and eighty feet; those of an inferior 
quality are brought from a lesser depth. The method of 



PRErARATION FOE MARKET. 123 

diving is much the same as we have described i-w the coral- 
fishing. The diver, who goes head-foremost into the water, 
takes with him a triangidar-shaped stone, to which a strong 
line is attached to assist him in his descent, and direct him 
like a rudder to any particular spot. On reaching the bot- 
tom, the diver tears off a number of sponges, which adhere 
in masses to rocks and stones, sometimes to large shells, and 
are either round, flat, or hollow like a funnel ; and then, 
pulling a line, he is drawn up, with the sponges in his arms, 
by the rowers. An experienced diver will make from eight 
to ten dives during the day. The proceeds of the fishery 
are divided into shares, the divers receiving a whole share, 
and the rowers two-thirds of a share. Formerly the divers 
used to sell their sponges by weight, to increase which they 
put sand into them, a practice still continued, though now 
sold by quantity. 

The best quality is brought from the Agean Sea. At day- 
light, in the summer time, when the weather is pleasant — for 
it requires smooth water — the boats will leave the shore 
and proceed to where the water is of suitable depth. The 
divers then descend as before described. After being busy 
thus until mid-day, they return to some of those pleasant 
little nooks which abound in this locality to prepare what 
they have gathered ready for the market. This is done by 
pressing out the soft part of the animal. Then they beat 
and trample the animal until no life is left, after which 
process the remainder is bleached out by the sun. The 
skeleton part is thoroughly washed and otherwise treated 
until it is quite clean, and grows to be a dull yellow color; 
it is then packed in bags, and shipped to various parts of 
the world. 

The sponge, in its natural state, would not be recognized 
as that we are accustomed to use daily. In its primitive 
condition it is covered with a thin dark skin, inside of which 
there is a liquid like milk, and of the same consistency. If 



^ * 







^ifi 




i \ 



,"<* 

















SPONGE IN ITS NATURAL STATE. 



COMPOSITION OF TlIK SPONGE. 1'25 

we examine a drop of this liquid by the microscope, it would 
appear entirely composed of very small transparent grains, 
nearly of the same size, Avith some moisture. This jelly mat- 
ter connects the different parts of the framework of the 
spong'e, and lines the various canals or passag-es. The pores, 
or apertures for perspiration, are minute openings on the 
surface, protected by the framework, and into which the 
water enters in currents, and after traversing the interior 
passages, is ejected by means of openings which are larger 
than the pores, and in many species are elevated above the 
surface. To examine closely the framework or skeleton of 
the sponge, it is necessary to macerate it in hot water, which 
removes the gelatinous matter, and leaves it in a condition 
to be examined by the microscope. This framework con- 
sists principally of two materials, one animal, the other min- 
eral ; the first of a thready, horny, elastic nature ; the second 
(the species most commonly used for domestic purposes) of 
a flinty or chalk material. The thready portion consists of a 
light pale-colored network, with some few exceptions always 
solid, and varying considerably in size. The mineral por- 
tion has little spines, which, if examined with the microscope, 
show traces of a central cavity or canal, the extremities of 
which are closed. 

How the growth and increase of the sponge is effected 
affords matter of the deepest interest, and this, like every- 
thing else in nature, shows the unerring wisdom of an all- 
sustaining Providence. 

From the framework or skeleton of the sponge emerge, at 
certain seasons of the year, a yellow kind of grain, which 
projects as it increases in size into the cavities of the sponge, 
and forms the germ or seed of another race ; these are egg- 
like in appearance ; and a large portion of its surface be- 
comes covered with little hairs, called eyelashes from their 
resemblance to such. These hairs act as oars to the little 
germ, to convey it away as soon as it falls on the water to 



126 DIGESTION AND RESriBATION. 

some other spot to which it may attach itself, The hairs, 
after accomplishing their purpose, fall off, leaving the germ 
to gradually develop into the sponge. 

This sponge is a natural production, and we have already 
hinted, has been known from the times of highest antiquity. 
As is well known, all naturalists are now satisfied of the 
animal nature of this species of creation, although they were 
once thought to represent the lowest and most obscure 
grades of animal existence, and that so close to the confines 
of the vegetable world, that it was considered difficult in 
some species to determine whether they were on one side 
or the other. 

According to a generally accepted view, the channels of 
the sponge perform the two functions of digestion and respi- 
ration. The rapid currents of aerated water which traverse 
them lead into them the substances necessary to the nourish- 
ment of these strange creatures, and at the same time carry 
off all excremental matter. At the same time, the walls of 
these animals present a large absorbing surface which sep- 
arates the oxygen with which the water is charged, and dis- 
engages the carbonic acid which results from respiration. 
But science is far from being settled in its views as to the 
organization and development of these obscure and complex 
creatures ; nor is it more advanced in its knowledge of the 
duration of life and the quickness of growth in sponges. 
Nor can it be denied, also, that these beings constitute, in 
spite of the investigations of modern naturalists, a group 
still somewhat problematical as to their position in the scale 
of animal life, and that they still are very imperfectly known 
as regards their internal organization. 

The demand for sponges is increasing annually, and it is 
only a question of time when the trade must cease. The 
submarine fields are constantly being cleared, and the de- 
struction is such that the reproduction will cease to be 
adequate. 



PRESERVATION OF SPONGE FISHERIES. 127 

In order to prevent this result, it has been suggested 
that attempts should be made to naturalize the several 
species of sponges, and that their cultivation and reproduc- 
tion should be protected. The first thing to consider is 
what waters have the same or nearly the same temperature 
as that in which the sponges now dwell. This being com- 
paratively easy, the next and most difiicult part would be to 
transfer the animals in such a shape as would insure repro- 
duction in their new homes. Some such submarine boat as 
has been used recently in making scientific operations con- 
ducted in deep water, might, probably, give the necessary 
facility for collecting sponges for the purpose. Such a boat 
can descend to great depths, and its crew can even dwell 
there for a considerable time, for it is continually fed with 
fresh air ; so that the men could readily select such specimens 
as were suited for acclimatizing, removing whole blocks of 
rock along with them. 

It might be possible too to collect the very young forms 
of sponge in the months of April and May, shortly after they 
have commenced their independent existence*, and to trans- 
plant them to favorable localities. At the end of a few 
years, when these true submarine fields would be probably 
ripe for harvesting, they could be farmed out for methodical 
collection, which would be effected by means of diving 
boats. 





CHAPTER IX. 

SEALS. 

" Man bends the ocean monsters to his sway, 
No terrors daunt him on his arduous way; 
Through frozen waters, or in sunlit waves, 
He seeks the Seal, unnumber'd hardships braves 
To gain a prize so rich in useful store. " 

fT the approach of the Arctic summer, all is 
bustle and activity among the natives of the 
Arctic regions. The materials for the summer 
huts are prepared, and the whole household, 
consisting of five or six families, move down to 
the fishing-place, which is generally an island 
with a low beach, in a southern aspect, for the convenience 
of launching their boats or drawing the seals which have 
been taken ashore. They are not confined to any particular 
spot in the summer, unless abundance of seals are seen; but 
they generally shift to some other station, which, in the 
course of former seasons, they may have observed as more 
suitable. 

The Esquimaux have their regular divisions of work. 
The men are the carpenters ; the women are the tailors, 
shoemakers and cooks, helping their husbands or fathers oc- 
casionally in their fishing. It is heavy work for these poor 
females, but Providence has endowed them with a strength 
of constitution and powers of endurance far greater than 
women in more genial climates possess. They have to haul 
the seals that have been taken by the men, ashore, and con- 
vey them to the huts. They also flay and cut up the spoil. 



USES OF TUE BLUBBER OF SEALS. 129 

Seal's flesh forms their chief food, and they employ various 
methods for preserving it for future use. The most com- 
mon plan is to cut it into thin strips, and dry them over a 
line in the interior of the huts. Tlie seal-skins, which the 
Esquimaux have a mode of rendering waterproof, form tlie 
chief articles of dress ; when tanned, they make excellent 
shoes. 

It may be mentioned here that the Romans believed a 
seal's skin was a preservative against lightning, and they 
made tents of it to shelter themselves during thunder- 
storms. The Emperor Augustus is said by Suetonius never 
to have traveled without one of these skins, having a great 
dread of lightning. 

The blubber of the seal is most carefully preserved by 
the Esquimaux, being useful in many ways to their domestic 
comfort, and more precious to them by far than wine is to 
others. The oil is the luxury of their meals, and is of a su- 
perior quality to that of the common whale ; their bread is 
nothing more than the dried muscular parts of seals or 
birds. Whatever may be thought of the Esquimaux's par- 
tiality for seal-flesh, it is well to remember that our English 
ancestors considered it a delicacy. The seal and the por- 
poise are mentioned in the bill of fare of a feast given at 
the enthronization of George Neville, Archbishop of York, 
in 1465. The meat is described as tender, but it certainly 
has a look and smell which would not be agreeable to any 
but very hungry persons. 

The Esquimaux are exceedingly expert in their mode of 
capturing the seal. This is done either individually or in 
company, or in winter on the ice. Their kayaks, or skin 
boats are very curious : they are about eighteen feet in 
length, pointed at the head, and shaped like a weaver's shut- 
tle ; they are, at the same time, scarcely a foot and a half 
wide over the middle, and not more than a foot deep. They 
are built of a slender skeleton of wood, consisting of a keel 



130 MODES OF CAPTURING THE SEAL. 

and long side-laths, with cross-ribs like hoops, but not quite 
round. The whole is covered with seal-skin. In the mid- 
dle of this covering is a round aperture, supported with a 
strong rim of wood or bone ; the Esquimaux slip into this 
cavity, their feet resting on a board covered with skin. The 
lance, harpoon and tackle are arranged before the boatman. 
He uses his oar or paddle with wonderful dexterity, striking 
the water on either side alternately, by which means he can 
proceed at the rate of sixty miles or more in a day. In this 
frail bark, which only those accustomed to such can manage, 
the Greenlander fears no storm or the roughest breakers, 
so long as he retains his oar, which enables him to sit up- 
right ; and if overturned, while the head is downward in the 
water with one stroke he can recover himself. 

" Train'd with inimitable skill to float, 
Each balanced in his bubble of a boat, 
With dexterous paddle steering through the spray, 
With pois'd harpoon to strike his plunging prey, 
As though the skill, the seaman, oar and dart 
Were one compacted body, and one heart. 
While instinct, motion, pulse, empowered to ride — 
A human nautilus upon the tide. " 

As the natives are ever on the watch, as soon as they disi- 
cover a herd of seals — driven usually by stormy weather in- 
to some creek or inlet — they endeavor to cut oflf their retreat, 
and frighten them under water by shouting, clapping, and 
throwing stones. As, however, the seals must speedily come 
to the surface of the water to breathe, they are surrounded 
and killed with long or short lances. 

There are various modes of capturing seals on the ice. 
As the animals make holes in it for breathing, the Esqui- 
maux seat themselves on stools, watching their appearance at 
the apertures, and rarely fail to harpoon them, enlarging the 
holes to withdraw and kill them. Sometimes, on seeing a 
seal lying on the ice near a hole, the Greenlander slides along 



132 EXPERTNESS OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 

on his stomach towards it, wagging his head, and making a 
sound like a seal, thus deceiving the poor animal into a be- 
lief that it is one of his companions. But the seal is usually 
wary — that is, the older ones — and takes every opportunity 
of escaping from its pursuers. When one is seen at sea, a 
signal is passed to the diiferent boats engaged in the chase, 
and the animal is surrounded ; a careful watch is kept for 
the moment of its reappearing, and on this taking place, one 
of the boats having advanced near enough, a dart is hurled 
with unerring aim. The seal, terrified and wounded, dives 
in the greatest hurry; but a float being attached to the dart, 
it is soon forced up again and dispatched. The Avounds of the 
seal are then carefully staunched, to save as much of the 
blood as possible, and the body is distended by blowing into 
the cellular part, in order to render the animal buoyant, or, 
otherwise, it would sink to the bottom as soon as dead. 

The chase of the seal, however, is not free from danger, 
even to the expert fisherman of the Arctic shores. If the 
animal is not too much exhausted when pursued, it some- 
times turns on its adversary, seizes his frail skin boat, and 
with its sharp teeth pierces a hole, when the kayak sinks 
with its unfortunate owner. Many risks also occur from the 
lines to which the floats are attached getting foul of the pad- 
dle or the arms or neck of the fisherman, when the seal dives 
suddenly on being wounded. The males are very pugna- 
cious, and have terrible fights among themselves. 

Seal-hunting, or fishing, as it is often called, is the great 
occupation of the Greenlanders, and is also extensively pur- 
sued by various nations in other northern parts of the 
world. 

A great many species of seals are met with on the west- 
ern coast of Greenland ; but the most higtily prized by the 
natives is what sailors call the Sea-Cdlf, so named from a 
supposed resemblance of the voice to that of a calf. These 
animals live in families, the old male being attended by his 



HABITS OF THE SEAL. 183 

progeny for several generations. They are clncfly seen in 
tiocks, amounting sometimes to hundreds. The teeth are 
very sharp, and the bite is severe. The habits of the seal 
are filthy, and singularl}' mischievous. A perpetual tyrant 
over weaker animals, it is also an object of constant pursuit 
with others. The white bear — with whom the seal is a great 
dainty — is constantly on the watch to surprise it when sleep- 
ing on the ice ; but the cautious animal usually selects a sin- 
gle piece of ice for a nap, from which it may gain a full view of 
all around, and the proximity of the water may afford a ready 
means of escape. They are also said to have a great dread 
of the toothed whales. If a grampus perceives a seal of any 
species basking on floating ice, it does its best to upset the 
ice, or beat the seal off with its fins, when the animal be- 
comes any easy prey. 

Seals are easily stunned by a blow on the forehead ; but 
from this state they often recover, and are desperate in their 
revenge. The sea-calf, in particular, is subject to violent 
fits of anger. After it has been hoisted on board a ship frona 
the boat in which it had been carried, apparently dead from 
the blows it had received, it has been known to recover un- 
expectedly, and seizing with its teeth the nearest object 
within reach, tear away such a portion as it could grasp. 
Even after death this irritation manifests itself, as the mus- 
cular parts of the animal — though stripped of its outer in- 
teguments or coverings — still retain the principle of vitality, 
starting and quivering long after the dismemberment of the 
body has taken place. 

When seals are observed making their escape in the wa- 
ter before the boat reaches the ice, the sailors give a loud, 
prolonged shout, which, causing them to stop in amazement 
at a sound so uncommon, sometimes delays their retreat until 
arrested by the fatal blows of their pursuers. 

In the higher latitudes, the Bearded or Great Seals are 
mostly found. These are usually of an enormous size, some- 



134 THE FUR SEAL. 

times ten or twelve feet in length, and of proportionate mag- 
nitude of bodj. This seal migrates in families, the elder 
ones leading the van, while the young follow confusedly 
behind, playing, tumbling, and frisking along in the highest 
enjoyment, and frequently in the extravagance of their fun, 
flinging themselves quite out of the water. The sailors call 
these antics " seals' weddings." 

Though the bearded seal does not yield much oil, yet its 
fat is esteemed delicious by the northerners. The Harp 
Seal, so named from a large black crescent-shaped mark on 
each side of the back, belongs also to the ice regions, though 
sometimes seen on the British coast. It attains the length 
of eight, and even nine feet. 

The seal belongs to the Mammalia, or animals that suckle 
their young, and constitute the family Phocidoe. All the 
animals of this class are mainly aquatic, but also frequently 
resort to land, or ice-islands, where they remain for days, and 
even months, suckling their young, or basking in the sun 
during the brief summer. The i^-wr /S'ea? seems to possess 
remarkable powers of agility on land, often escaping when 
pursued b}'^ the men running fast. They cannot walk, but 
shuffle along, especially over the ice, very quickly. On land 
the hind feet are never employed, nor the fore feet unneces- 
sarily, but in moving forward it bends the hinder part of the 
spine underneath it, thus making a kind of arch, and then 
fixing tlie latter end, it suddenly straightens out the whole 
body in front, and in a repetition of this movement consists 
the peculiar kind of jerking leap for which these animals are 
remarkable. When the seal ascends an ice-island or rock, 
the ease with which it accomplishes its purpose is wonderful 
It then makes especial use of its fore paws, and those which 
have claws are implanted into them like so many grap- 
pling-irons, and, having thus secured a fixed point, they raise 
their monstrous bodies with the greatest rapidity. The 
general shape of a seal resembles i its trunk that of a fish 



THE COMMON SEAL. 135 

and a common quadruped; the liead is like that of a dog; 
the arms, which are destitute of collar-bones, are so hid 
beneath the skin of the body that only the wrists and hands 
appear, and they are then so short that they can scarcely be 
advanced forward ut all. But what they lose in extent they 
gain in power. They are admirably adapted for swimming, 
and serve also for seizing or holding. The fingers have an 
intervening membrane, but they can be separated so as to 
diminish or increase the surface of the paws. In all the 
species, the fingers can be distinguished through the paw, 
and inmost the nails appear at the termination; but in one 
group of seals there is this difference, that the membrane or 
web extends beyond the nails, not joined, but hanging down 
in the water like broad leathern strips, which the sailors 
call " flippers." The face is provided with strong whiskers 
placed on each side of the mouth and at the corner of the 
eye, communicating with nerves of considerable size, and the 
slightest impression produces sensation. 

The ground color of the hair or skin of the common seal, 
when the animal is alive and dry, is a pale whitish-gray, 
with a very slight tinge of yellow. When just out of the 
water and wet, the color is ash ; after death, and as seen in 
museums, the ground color is pale yellowish-gray, the oil 
having penetrated the skin and rendered the hair of a more 
yellow hue. The fur of seals is very smooth, and abun- 
dantly lubricated with an oily secretion. There is generally 
an inner coating of rich fur, through which grow long hairs, 
forming an outer covering. Another adaptation to aquatic 
life and a cold climate is the layer of fat under the skin, 
from which the oil is obtained, and serving, as in the case 
of the Avhale, not only for support when food is scarce, but 
protection from the cold, besides rendering the whole body 
lighter. The respiration of the seal differs considerably 
from what has been observed in most animals: the nostrils 
are habitually closed, instead of being uniformly opened. 



136 SEALS FOND OF MUSIC. 

Bufifon examined a tame seal, and remarked that the period 
between its several inspirations was very long : the crea- 
ture opened its nostrils to make a strong expiration, which 
was immediately followed by an inspiration; after which it 
closed them, often allowing two minutes to intervene wi-th- 
out taking another breath. This power of suspension for a 
considerable time is of great use, enabling the seals to pur- 
sue their prey under water. Seals are often subjected to 
enormous pressure under water, which must be resisted, at 
the respective apertures of the body, by an appropriate 
mechanism. A similar provision is made for the eyes, as 
well as the nostrils, in more ways, perhaps, than one. 
At the inner angle of the eye (which is very large and 
round) there is a third eyelid, which can be drawn over the 
whole eye. The ears as well as the eyes, can be closed at 
will, so as to resist pressure. 

How very w^onderful is the provision thus aiforded to the 
seal, as, in fact, to all created objects, and how the contem- 
plation of such subjects should raise our hearts to the 
Omnipotent God! 

To know and feel His care for all that lives." 

Captain Scoresby, who had numerous opportunities of 
observing the habits of the seal, states that the animal hears 
well under water, and that music, and particularly a person 
Avhistling, draws it to the surface, and induces it to stretch 
out the neck to the utmost extent, so as to prove a snare, by 
bringing them within reach of the shooter. Many similar 
observations of this curious faculty in seals have been re- 
lated by different writers. One remarks : " In walking along 
the shore, a few notes of my flute would bring half a score 
of seals within thirty or forty yards of me ; and there they 
would swim about, with their heads above water, like so 
many black dogs, evidently delighted with the sounds. For 
half an hour, or indeed for any length of time I chose, I 



TAME SEALS. 137 

could fix them to the spot ; and when I moved along the 
water edge, they would follow me with eagerness." 

The food of the seal appears to be chiefly fish, although 
it does not reject other animal food, and it is said to derive 
part of its nourishment from marine vegetables. It has been 
found that seals have a remarkable habit of swallowing 
large stones, for which no probable reason has been yet as- 
signed. The keeper of the celebrated " talking seal" in the 
Zoological Gardens is reported to have given his pet fifty 
pounds' weight of fish in a day, but this is by no means a 
limit of appetite, for double the quantity would no doubt 
have found a ready reception. This will give you an idea 
of the vast consumption of fish in its native element. A 
good-sized Spitzbergen seal in good condition is about ten 
feet in length and six feet in circumference, weighing about 
six hundred pounds or upwards. The skin and fat amount 
to about one-half the total weight. The blubber 'yields 
about one-half of its own weight in oil. 

It has been supposed that seals can be easily tamed, but 
such cases are exceptional. Some of the common species, 
however, have shown great attachment to their owners, and 
exhibited considerable powers of intelligence. An anecdote 
is related of a seal that performed very cleverly what it was 
ordered to do, and would raise itself on its hind legs, take a 
staff in its paws, and act the sentinel. At the word of com- 
mand it would lie down on its right side or left, and tumble 
head over heels. It would give either of its paws when de- 
sired, and was equally ready at a kiss. Another was kept by 
Cuvier for a considerable time, and became very tame. 
When teased it resisted, and when much irritated barked 
very feebly. It was particularly attached to the old woman 
who had charge of it, and recognized her at a considerable 
distance, keeping its eyes upon her as long as she was in 
sight, and running to her as soon as she approached its en- 
closure. If free when food was brought, it ran and urgently 



THE '' MARBLED" SEAL. 139 

solicited it by the motion of its head, and still more by the 
expression of its countenance. 

Of another species of seal called the Marbled, and found 
on the coast of France, which was kept for several weeks in the 
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, Cuvier says: '"I have never 
known any wild animal Avhich Avas more easily tamed, or 
attached itself more strongly. When it first came it endeav- 
ored to escape when I wished to touch it, but in a very few 
days all its apprehensions vanished ; it had discovered my 
intentions, and rather desired my caresses than feared them. 
It was in the same enclosure with two small dogs, which 
amused themselves by frequently mounting on its back, with 
barking, and even biting it; and although these sports and 
the vivacity of the attending movements were little in har- 
mony with its own actions and habits, yet it appreciated 
their motive, and seemed pleased with them. It never 
offered any other retaliation than slight blows with its paws, 
the object of which was to encourage rather than repress 
the liberties taken. If the puppies escaped from the enclo- 
sure, the seal endeavored to follow them, notwithstanding 
the difficulty it experienced in creeping along the ground 
covered with stones and rubbish. When the weather was 
cold, the three animals huddled closely and kindly together, 
that they might contribute to their mutual warmth." The 
creature did not exhibit any alarm at the presence of man or 
animals, and did not get out of the way unless when threat- 
ened to be trod upon. Though very voracious, it did not 
show any opposition or anger when robbed of its food. 
" Often," adds Cuvier, " have I tried him when pressed with 
hunger, and never opposed my will ; and I have seen the 
dogs, to whom he was much attached, amuse themselves 
when he was feeding, by snatching the fish from his mouth, 
without his exhibiting any rage. On the other hand, when 
their mess was supplied to the seals (for he had a companion), 
as they were lying in the same trough, a battle was the usual 



140 THE SEALS OF SOUTHERN SEAS. 

result, and blows with their paws followed, and as usually 
happened, the more feeble and timid gave way to the 
stronger." 

The seals of the Southern seas are quite different from 
those of the Northern. The most remarkable of these ani- 
mals is the Sea Elephant, or Prohoscis Seal, named thus, 
partly on account of the very peculiar appearance of its 
short trunk, and also from its being much the largest of its 
kind, doubling the dimensions of its terrestrial namesake, 
reaching the enormous length of twenty-five and thirty feet, 
and being also of a proportionate thickness. Its color is 
sometimes gray or blue-gray, and more rarely blackish- 
brown. There is an absence of everything like external 
ears ; it has great whiskers of strong coarse hairs, very long, 
and twisted somewhat like a screw, with other similar hairs 
over each eye, supplying the place of eyebrows; the eyes 
are very large and prominent ; strong and powerful swim- 
ming paws, having at their margins five small black nails ; 
a very short tail, which is almost hid beneath two flat hori- 
zontal fins: these form the distinguishing peculiarities of 
this strange animal. When the sea-elephant is in a state of 
repose, its nostrils, shrunk and hanging down, serve only to 
make the face appear larger : but whenever he rouses him- 
self, when he respires violently, or when about to attack or 
defend himself, the proboscis becomes lengthened in the 
form of a tube to the length of about a foot ; and then not 
only is the countenance changed, but the character of the 
voice is modified in a not less striking manner. Though 
furnished with large and powerful tusks, the sea-elephant is 
mild and inoffensive in his habits ,• but when assailed is a 
formidable adversary. It has been related that a sailor 
having killed a young one, and skinned it in the presence of 
its mother, she came up behind him, and seizing his head in 
her mouth, so injured his skull, that he died in a day or two 
afterwards. This is not, however, their usual habit, as has 



SEA LIONS. 141 

been stated. A young one, petted by an English seaman, 
became so attached to liis master from kind treatment for a 
few months, that it would come at his call, allow him to 
mount upon its back, and put his hands into its mouth. 

The cry of the female and the young is said to be like 
the lowing of an ox ; but the hoarse, gurgling, singular voice 
of the male — strengthened by the proboscis — is heard from 
a great distance, and is wild and frightful. They are found 
in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans. The great object for 
which this animal is hunted is for the oil, which is remark- 
ably pure in quality ; the skin is used extensively for car- 
riage and horse harness, on account of its thickness and 
strength. 

The Sea Leopard is a rare species of seal, in length about 
nine feet ten inches, which has been found in South Shet- 
land. The 3Ionk Seal frequents the southern shores of 
Europe. 

The Otaries are a species of seal thus named because 
their heads are furnished with external ears, of which the 
others are deprived, and from whom they also differ in other 
particulars. These include the Sea-Lion of the Northern 
seas, about fifteen feet in length, and found chiefly on 
rocky coasts and islet rocks, on the ledges of which it 
climbs, and its roaring is sometimes useful as warning sailors 
of danger. The old males have a fierce aspect, but it is 
only when driven to extremities that they fight furiously. 
The Sea-Bear, or Ursine Seal, is an inhabitant of the North- 
ern Pacific, and attains a length of about eight feet. The 
hinder limbs of this animal being better developed, it can 
stand and walk almost like a land quadruped. It swims 
with great swiftness, and is fierce and courageous. The 
skin is much prized for clothing in the regions where it 
abounds. 



POTWAL. 



CHAPTER X. 

WHALES— THE MONABCHS OF THE OCEAN. 

'F all the industrial pursuits which engage the 
venturous seaman on the wide ocean, those 
connected with the capture of the Whale, — 

" the mightiest that swims the ocean stream," 

and, it may be said, in point of dimensions 
the monarch also of creation, — are the most exciting and 
perilous ; requiring the greatest endurance, hardihood and 
courage, and at the same time yielding, under favorable cir- 
cumstances, a substantial return for the dangers encountered. 

Before relating some of the exciting adventures which 
occur in the pursuit and capture of the unfortunate whales, 
a few particulars will be given about the animals them- 
selves. 

There are many peculiarities to be observed in these huge 
monarchs of the ocean. They comprise a class of animated 




PECULIARITIES CONNECTED WITH THE WHALE. 143 

creatures distinct from botli fishes and land animals, though 
partaking ot" the characters of both. They are chissed in the 
order of warm-blooded Mammalia, that is to say, they breathe 
as the land Mammalia, and yet are as completely aquatic as 
true fish, which are cold-blooded. Fish never breathe, and 
if removed from the wa'ter into the air, they immediately die ; 
but whales, if deprived of air, and confined under the water, 
would be literally drowned. They usually come to the sur- 
face to breathe at intervals of eight or ten minutes, but they 
are capable of remaining under water nearly an hour. The 
whale has no gills, but a heart with two ventricles or cells, 
and very elastic lungs in a great bony chest, into which the 
air is freely admitted, not through the mouth; for, although 
the animal is of such prodigious dimensions (some species at- 
taining upwards of one hundred feet iu length, and a weight 
of nearly as many tons), yet the throat is so small that it 
could not dispose of a morsel which is swallowed by an ox. 
Through what are popularly called "blowers" or spiracles, 
huge nostrils which open on the summit of the head, from 
eight to twelve inches long, but of small breadth, the whale 
can send a column of moist vapor forty to fifty feet high ; 
and when this breathing or blowing is performed under the 
surface of the ocean, a vast quantity of water is also thrown 
into the air, and the noise made in this operation can, it is 
said, be heard at the distance of between two and three 
miles. 

Another peculiarity about these wonderful creatures — 
which belong to the class Cetacea, and which comprises not 
only all the varieties of the whale tribe, but likewise the 
grampus, the porpoise, the dolphin, the dugong, amd some 
others of comparatively very small size — is the tail, which is 
not vertical as in most fishes, but level, by which they are 
able to reach the surface of the water with greater facility 
for the purposes of respiration ; and such is the strength of 
this tail that even the largest whales are able, with its as- 



144 WONDERFUL POWER IN THE TAIL. 

sistance, to force themselves entirely out of the water ; in 
the large whales the surface of the tail comprises from eighty 
to one hundred square feet. In length it is only from five 
to six feet, but in width it measures from eighteen to twenty- 
six feet. 

Providence has given this immense power to serve as a de- 
fense, as well as a means of propulsion, to the huge ani- 
mal, for the tail is nearly the sole instrument of its protec- 
tion. With one stroke of it the whale will send a large boat 
with its crew into the air, and shatter the wood into a thou- 
sand pieces. The tail enables the animal to rise in the water 
by striking a few slight blows with it downwards, when the 
head is naturally carried in an opposite direction, and when 
the whale wishes to sink, a few similar strokes with the tail 
upwards at once serve to bury the head beneath the surface. 

Sometimes the animal takes a perpendicular position in 
the water, with the head downwards, and, rearing the tail on 
high, beats the waves with fearful violence. On these occa- 
sions the sea foams for a wide space around, and the lashing 
is heard at a great distance, like the roar of a tempest. This 
performance is called by the sailors " lob-tailing." 

The head is of enormous size, being about one-third of the 
entire bulk of the whale, and the lips, nearly twenty feet 
long in some species, show a cavity large enough to hold a 
ship's jolly-boat and crew; but, as I observed before, the 
throat is very narrow. It is stated to be no more than an 
inch and a half in diameter even in a large whale, so that only 
very small animals can pass through it. The basis of the 
head consists of the crown-bone from each side of which de- 
scend the immense jaw-bones, from sixteen to twenty feet in 
length, extending along the mouth in a curved line until 
they meet and form a kind of crescent. 

In the Arctic seas whales find an abundance of food in the 
shape of animalculse, several species of marine worms, jelly- 
fish, crabs, and especially shrimps, which abound in those 



DESCRIPTION OF THE WHALE. 145 

regions. John Parry relates that joints of meat hung by 
his crew over the sides of the ship were in a few days picked 
to the bone by shrimps. 

Some species of whales are entirely destitute of teeth, but 
Nature has provided them with an apparatus of whalebone, 
for the purpose of straining out of the water the small ani- 
mals which form their nourishment. There are several hun- 
dreds of these plates on each side of the mouth, the whole 
quantity in that of a large whale sometimes weighing nearly 
two tons. 

The tongue of the whale is a soft thick mass, not extend- 
ing beyond the back of the mouth. It was formerl}^ consid- 
ered a great delicacy of the table, and a right of royalty. 
The sword-fish, an implacable enemy of the whale, has a sim- 
ilar relish for the tongue, and, it is said, leaves the rest of 
the carcass untouched. The skin of the whale is naked and 
smooth, with the exception of a few bristles about the jaws, 
and is covered with an oily fluid, which renders it very slip- 
pery; beneath this is a thick layer, from eight to twenty 
inches, of a fatty substance, called blubber, the most valuable 
part of the animal, and which yields on boiling nearly its own 
bulk of thick coarse glutinous oil. It is by this wrapper that 
Providence enables the whale, a warm-blooded animal, to 
defy the utmost extremity of cold, and to retain a sufficient 
proportion of heat even under the icy Polar seas. It also 
serves to make the specific gravity of the body much lighter 
than it otherwise would be, so as to resist the pressure of the 
water at the great depths to which the whale descends. Yet 
it is this warm covering, so essential to the animal itself, 
that has excited the cupidity and deadly pursuit of man, 
causing him to brave the most appalling dangers, trusting to 
the resources of art in the instruments of destruction Avhere 
brute force alone could never prevail. 

To give an idea of the quantity and the value of the oil 
obtained from a Greenland whale of sixty feet in length, it 



146 ESQUIMAUX METHOD OF ATTACKING WHALES. 

has been stated that the weight of the animal being seventy 
tons would be nearly that of three hundred fat oxen. Of 
this vast mass the oil of a rich whale comprises about thirty 
tons, which renders it a valuable capture. 

The whale has no external ear, but, when the skin is re- 
moved, a small opening is perceived for the admission of 
sound. This sense may seem imperfect, yet the animal, by 
a quick perception of all movements made on the water, dis- 
covers danger at a great distance. The eyes appear small 
for such a huge animal, being about the size of those of an 
ox; but the sense of seeing is very acute. Behind them are 
the fins ; these are about nine feet long and four or five feet 
broad, and are enclosed by very elastic membranes, also pro- 
vided with bones, similar in form and number to those of the 
human hand. 

The -whale does not attain his full growth under twenty- 
five years, and is said to reach a very great age. The flesh 
is red, firm, and coarse, and is eaten raw by the Esquimaux, 
who also drink the oil with much enjoyment. In the bleak 
Polar regions, where the means for satisfying hunger are very 
scanty, the capture of a whale by the natives is an occasion 
for great rejoicing. 

Captain McClure mentions the Esquimaux method of 
attacking the whale : 

"A woman's boat, is manned by ladies, having as har- 
pooner a chosen man of the tribe, and a shoal of small fry in 
the form of hayaks, or single men canoes, are in attendance. 
The harpooner singles out a whale and drives his weapon 
into its flesh. To the harpoon an inflated seal-skin is attached 
by means of a walrus-hide thong. The wounded fish is then 
incessantly harrassed by men in the kayaks with harpoons, a 
number of which, when attached to the whale, baflSe its 
efforts to escape, and wear out its strength, until, in the 
course of a day, the whale dies from sheer exhaustion and 
loss of blood. 



THE NORTHERN RORQUAL. 147 

" The liarpooner, after a successful day's sport, is a very- 
great personage, and is invariably decorated with the Esqui- 
maux order of the blue ribbon, that is, he has a blue line 
drawn down his face over the bridge of his nose." 

The whale not only serves for food to the hardy Green- 
landers, but is also valuable in many other ways: some mem- 
branes of the stomach are used for the upper articles of 
clothing : the bones are converted into harpoons and spears 
for striking the seals or darting at sea-birds, and are also 
employed in the erection of their tents, and some tribes use 
them in the formation of their boats. 

The preceding remarks have applied to the whale tribe 
generally, but with a more direct allusion to the "Greenland" 
or "right" whale, as it is called, from its producing the 
greatest amount of oil. This animal inhabits the seas of the 
Northern parts of the world, and abounds chiefly in the Arc- 
tic regions. The ** Southern," or " Cape " whale is a distinct 
species, the head being smaller in proportion than its North- 
ern relative, and its color a uniform black. It attains the 
length of from fifty to sixty feet. 

The Northern Rorqual, which exists in great numbers in 
the Northern seas, is the largest of the whale tribe, the 
mightiest giant among giants, attaining the vast length of 
from one hundred to one hundred and ten feet, with a bodily 
circumference of from thirty to forty feet. The amazing 
speed and activity of this immense animal renders it a dan- 
gerous object to attack; besides the small quantity of oil it 
affords does not repay the fisherman for his risk. This whale 
has no teeth. When struck by a harpoon, it has been known 
to run off two thousand eight hundred and eighty feet of 
rope in a minute. An old Arctic navigator mentions an in- 
stance of a "razor-back," as the great rorqual is called by 
seamen, dragging a large boat with its crew amongst loose 
ice, where they all perished. 

The Smaller Rorqual, measuring from fifteen to twenty- 



148 CURIOUS PECULIARITIES OF SPERM WHALES, 

five feet, frequents the rocky bays of Greenland, and is con- 
sidered a tender morsel by the natives. There is also a 
" Rorqual " of the Southern seas, an animal of great power 
and a fast swimmer, very difficult to capture. The most 
valuable whale in the Southern seas is the Cachalot or 
Sperm whale, which supplies the spermaceti and amber- 
gris of commerce. This immense animal, which grows to 
the length of seventy to eighty feet, is found in almost every 
part of the warm latitudes. It has some curious peculiar- 
ities : the head has in front a very thick, blunt extremity 
called the snout or nose, and constitutes one-third of the 
whole length of the animal ; at its junction with the body, 
the animal has what the whalers call a " bunch of the neck," 
a large protuberance on the back, immediately behind which 
is the thickest part of the body, which from this part grad- 
ually tapers off to the tail ; and where this commences there 
is another large prominence called the " hump " after which 
the body contracts so much as to become finally not thicker 
than the body of a man. An immense cavity in the head 
contains cells filled with oil, which is fluid when the animal 
is alive, and after its death takes a concrete form known as 
spermaceti. The size of this cavity may be judged from 
what is said, that in a large whale it sometimes contains a 
ton, or more than ten barrels of spermaceti. The food of 
this huge monster consists principally of a species of poly- 
pus called "squid "by the sailors, and it is supposed that 
they are attracted by the shining white of the inner part of 
the whale's mouth. The sperm whale is generally seen in 
herds, or " schools" as they are called, consisting of several 
hundreds. With each herd of females, large males or 
" schoolmasters " are always associated, who are extremely 
jealous of intruders, and fight fiercely to maintain their 
rights. The large whale is generally incautious, and if 
alone is attacked without much difficulty, and is easily 
killed, as he frequently after receiving the first plunge of the 



TUE WHITE WHALE. 149 

harpoon appears hardly to feel it, but continues lying like 
a li)j^ of wood before he attempts to escape. Large whales, 
however, are sometimes very cunning and courageous, and 
commit fearful havoc with their tails and jaws. When 
alarmed they are said to perform many unusual actions; one 
of these consists in moving the tail slowly from side to side 
on the surface of the w ater, as if feeling for any object that 
may be near. It also rolls over and over on the surface, 
especially when harpooned, and in this v/ay will coil an 
amazing length of line around it. One of its most surprising 
feats is leaping out of the water. Darwin remarks that off 
Terra del Fuego he saw several spermaceti whales perform- 
ing this stupendous leap, and as they fell into the water side- 
ways the sound reverberated like distant thunder. 

The White Whale is described as a very beautiful animal, 
frequenting chiefly the Arctic seas, varying in length from 
ten to twenty feet. It is usually of a cream color, though 
some have been seen of a yellowish color, approaching to 
orange. In the dreary monotony of the icy regions, a lively 
herd of these animals, by their gambols and the exhibition 
of their smooth, slippery white bodies, affords a pleasing 
relief. The shape of this whale is highly symmetrical, re- 
sembling a double cone, one end of which is considerably 
shorter than the other ; the tail is very powerful, and being 
bent under the body in swimming, is worked with such force 
as to impel the animal forward with the velocity of an ar- 
row. The food of this whale is said to be cod, haddock, 
flounders and smaller fish of this description. They are not 
at all shy, but often follow ships and tumble about amidst 
the boats in herds of thirty and forty. Fortunately for 
them, this fearlessness of danger does not often expose them 
to the deadly harpoon, their comparative little value being 
their preservative from the whale-fishers. They do not, how- 
ever, experience the same immunity from the natives of the 
Greenland coast, where they arrive in great numbers at the 



150 GREAT CAPTURE OF WHALES. 

close of the year in stormy weather. They are then chiefly 
captured by nets, which are extended across the narrow 
sounds between the islands, and when thus entangled they 
are killed with lances. 

Another whale, called the Deductor, resembles somewhat 
the white whale, and appears to be the most sociable of all 
the Cetacean tribe, herding together in innumerable flocks. 
This leads, however, to a prodigious slaughter of these poor 
animals when (although frequenting chiefly the Northern 
Ocean), they wander away from their usual haunts, and get 
driven on shore by the fishermen, the main body of the 
drove following the leading whales as a flock of sheep. 

There is an account given of the capture of ninety-eight 
of these whales, in 1832, on the island of Lewis : 

" An immense shoal of whales was, early in the morning, 
chased to the mouth of the harbor of Stornoway by two 
fishing-boats, which had met them in the ofSng. The cir- 
cumstance was immediately seen from the shore, and a host 
of boats, about thirty or forty in number, set ofi" to join the 
others in pursuit, and engage in combat with these giants of 
the deep. The chase soon became one of bustle and anxiety 
on the part both of man and xvhale. The boats were ar- 
ranged by their crews in the form of a crescent, in the fold 
of which the whales were collected, and where they had to 
encounter tremendous showers of stones, splashings of oars, 
frequent gashings with harpoons and spears, whilst the din 
cieated by the shoutings of the boats' crews and the multi- 
tude on shore was in itself sufficient to stupefy and stun the 
bottle-nosed foe into a surrender. On more than one occa- 
sion, however, the floating phalanx was broken, and it re- 
quired the greatest activity and tact before the breach could 
be repaired and the fugitives regained. The shore was 
neared by degrees, the boats advancing and retreating by 
turns, till at length they succeeded in driving the captive 
monsters on the beach opposite the town and within a few 



FIGHT BETWEEN A WHALE AND A GRAMPUS. 151 

jards of it. The movements of the whales were now vio- 
lent, but, except when one became unmanageable and en- 
raged when harpooned, or his tail fixed in a noose, they were 
not dangerous to approach. One young sailor, however, re- 
ceived a stroke from the tail of one of the largest of them, 
which promised to be fatal. In a few hours the whales were 
captured, the shore was strewed with the dead carcasses, 
while the sea presented a troubled and bloody appearance, 
giving evident proof that it was with no small effort that 
they were subdued and made the property of man." 

The deductor whale has a very prominent head, short 
and round, with something like a pad over its mouth, which 
gives it a peculiar appearance. In length it is from sixteen 
to twenty-four feet, and in circumference ten or eleven feet. 
Almost the whole body is black, smooth, and shining like 
oiled silk. When the mouth is shut, the teeth lock into 
each other like those of a rat-trap. They are generally very 
fat, and yield a large quantity of good pale oil. 

It is impossible not to feel an emotion of pity for the 
whale — timid and inoffensive, with all its immense power for 
mischief, apparently unconscious of it until roused by dan- 
ger — subjected to such cruel treatment by the cupidity of 
man: the deadly harpoons inflict tremendous wounds, and 
the blood, rushing in torrents from its sides, crimsons the 
sea for a wide space around. 

The whale has, however, other enemies to contend wath 
besides man. Commodore Wilkes gives an animated ac- 
count of a sea-fight between a whale and a grampus, or 
" killer," as this fish is called. 

"At a distance from the ship a whale was seen floundering 
in a most extraordinary manner, lashing the smooth sea into 
a perfect foam, and endeavoring apparently to extricate 
himself from some annoyance. As he approached the ship, 
the struggle continuing and becoming more violent, it was 
perceived that a fish, apparently about twenty feet long, 



152 OTHER ENEMIES OF THE WHALE. 

held him by the jaw, his contortions,, spouting, and throes 
all betokening the agony of the huge monster. The whale 
now threw himself at full length from the water, with open 
mouth, his pursuer still hanging to the jaw, the blood is&n 
ing from the wound and dyeing the sea to a distance around ; 
but all his flounderings were of no avail, his pertinacious 
enemy still maintaining his hold and evidently getting the 
advantage of him. Much alarm seemed to bo felt by the 
other whales around. These ' killers,' as they are called, are 
of a brownish color on the back, and white on the belly, with 
a white dorsal fin. They attack a whale in the same man- 
ner as dogs bait a bull, and worry him to death. They are 
armed with strong sharp teeth, and generally seize the whale 
by the lower jaw. It is said that the only part of the huge 
monster that they eat is the tongue. The whalers give 
marvelous accounts of the immense strength of these " kill- 
ers." They have been known to drag a whale from several 
boats which were towing it to the ship." 

The saw-fish is also a most formidable assailant of the 
whale. The upper jaw of this fish is prolonged into a pro- 
jecting flattened snout, the greatest length of which is six 
feet, forming a saw, armed at each edge with about twenty 
large bony spines or teeth. An account is given here of a 
combat that occurred on the west coast of Scotland, between 
a whale and some saw-fishes, aided by an auxiliary force of 
" thrashers " (fox sharks). The sea was dyed in blood from 
the stabs inflicted by the saw-fishes under the water, while 
the thrashers, watching their opportunity, struck at the un- 
wieldy monster as often as it rose to breathe. 

The sword-fish is also said to attack the whale, furnished, 
also, with a powerful weapon for defensive or aggressive 
war, in the shape of a bony snout about four or five feet long, 
not serrated like the saw-fish, but of a much stronger con- 
sistency — in fact, the hardest material known. 

Beset by powerful enemies, the whale must have a 



ATTACUMENT OF WHALES TO Til FAR YOUNG. 153 

troublous existence ; and if one thing can enlist our sympa- 
thies lor these animals more than another, it is the well- 
known attachment they have to each other, and particularly 
for their young. It is said that when a female whale is 
wounded, her companions will remain around her until the 
last moment, or when they are themselves wounded. The 
whalers strike the young cubs, or *' suckers," as they are 
called, not for their value, for these would hardly produce a 
barrel of oil, but the men know that the mother will start 
forth in their defence. She joins her cub at the surface 
whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration, encourages 
it to swim off, and seldom deserts it while life remains. She is 
then dangerous to approach, but affords frequent opportuni- 
ties of attack. She loses all regard for her own safety in 
anxiety for the preservation of her young, dashes through 
the midst of her enemies, and even voluntarily remains with 
her offspring after various attacks on herself. 

"In 1811," says Scoresby, "one of my harpooners struck a 
sucker with the hope of leading to the capture of the mother. 
Presently she arose close to the ' fast boat,' and, seizing the 
young one, dragged about six hundred feet of line out of the 
boat, with remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to 
the surface — darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped 
short, or suddenly changed her direction, and gave every 
possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time 
she continued thus to act, though pursued closely by the 
boats, and, inspired with courage and resolution by her con- 
cern for her young, seemed regardless of the dangers around 
her. At length one of the boats approached so near that a 
harpoon was hove at her : it hit, but did not attach itself. A 
second harpoon was struck, but this also failed to penetrate ; 
so that, in a few minutes, three more harpoons were fastened, 
and in the course of an hour afterwards she was killed." 




~- ^^'T' 



'3^o\ 



=_ "--^i^'.^Sr^^, ' ' 




GREENLAND WHALE. 




CHAPTER XI. 

THE WHALE FI8REBT AND ITS PERILS. 

HE preparation for a cruise among the whales 
is very exciting ; not so much as it used to 
be, because the supply of oil from other 
sources, the general use of gas, and other 
circumstances, have diminished the neces- 
sity which formerly prevailed for a means 
of illumination. Still there is a considerable demand for the 
valuable products of the whale — the oil, the whalebone, the 
spermaceti, and the ambergris, which constitute essential 
articles of commerce. 

The Arctic regions have for several centuries been the 
chief haunts of the whale fishery. There has been, how- 
ever, of late years a great decrease in the number of whales, 
and the fishery as a speculation has become more preca- 
rious. 

Within a period of twenty years, no less than twenty 



ATTACK ON THE WHALE. 155 

whale-ships were Avrecked or crushed by the ice, and the 
sutlerings of the crews were fearful. 

The ships employed in the Northern fishery are con- 
structed expressly for that object, and strengthened so as 
to encounter exposure in the ice regions. They are gener- 
ally of from three to four hundred tons, each having a crew 
of about fifty men — experienced, hardy sailors — accustomed 
to the dangers of these particular expeditions. Six or seven 
light swift boats are requisite for each vessel; and another 
requirement is what is called a " crow's-nest," a kind of 
watch-tower, placed on the main-topmast to shelter the man 
on duty, whose ofiice it is to keep a steady look-out with a 
telescope, for the spout of a whale in the distance, or the 
approach of drifting ice. 

On reaching the Polar seas, the real hard work com- 
mences, the men being on watch night and day, and the 
boats kept ready for instant use whenever a whale is seen. 
On receiving an indication to that eff"ect from the man in the 
"crow's-nest," a boat is launched, having a harpooner, a man 
to steer, one to look after the ropes, together with three or 
four rowers, and provided Avith an immense quantity of rope 
ready for use. The boat is steered rapidly and silently 
towards the whale, and on arriving within a few yards of it, 
the harpooner hurls his w^eapon so that it may enter under 
one of the monster's fins — a vulnerable part. The harpoon, 
in its most simple form, is a spear of about five feet in 
length, with a much flattened point, having sharp cutting 
edges, and two large flattened barbs. These are attached 
to a long line at the opposite end of the barbed joint. The 
gun-harpoon is a short bar of iron with the barbed spear at 
the end, and a ring with a chain for the attachment of the 
line. This is fired from a small swivel cannon attached to 
the whaler's boat ; but the difficulty in whale fishing is to 
secure the capture of the animal, who sinks to a great depth 
on being struck, alternately rising to breathe, and sinking, 



156 THE FINAL CAPTURE. 

so that the only chance of success is ,to tire it out. This is 
a critical moment for the crew in the boat, who are exposed 
to the most violent blows of the whale's head or fins, and 
still more of the tail, the tremendous power of which has 
been mentioned. The moment that the wounded whale dis- 
appears, a flag is displayed in the boat, at sight of which 
those who are on watch in the ship give the alarm by stamp- 
ing on the deck, and those of the crew who are sleeping be- 
low, hastily throwing on a few clothes, launch the boats, 
and proceed to the assistance of their companions. 

The greatest care is necessary by the boatman who has 
charge of the rope, in letting out and guiding the line to 
which the harpoon is attached. Should it be entangled for 
a moment, the whale would draw the boat beneath the 
waves. The time a wounded whale remains under water is 
generally half an hour, but some stay much longer. The 
boats take up a position near which it is likely to rise, when 
each harpooner strikes his weapon into the animal, and long 
and sharp lances are thrust into its side, until, exhausted 
with the loss of blood, the whale gives signs of approaching 
death by discharging blood from the blow-holes or nostrils, 
sometimes drenching the ice, boats, and men with it. As 
the huge animal plunges along in agony, its course is 
marked by a broad line of oil on the sea, issuing from its 
wounds. 

The final capture is generally preceded by an awful and 
convulsive struggle ; the tail lashes the water with fury, and 
the circles formed on the surface of the violently agitated 
waves extend to a great distance. When dying, the whale 
turns over on its side or back, a circumstance announced 
from the boats by loud cries and striking the flags. No 
time is lost : the tail is pierced and fastened with ropes to 
the boats, which drag the carcass to the ships with bois- 
terous cheers. 

A curious instance is related of a Dutch whaling crew. 



ANECDOTE OF A DUTCH WHALING CREW. 157 

who had, as they thought, secured their capture to the side 
of the ship, after towing- it in triumph from the scene of con- 
flict, missing their prize. The crew were giving vent to 
their dehght, and the security seemed complete, for they 
were sailing a long distance from the ice-banks. They Avere 
having a good dinner to strengthen themselves before pro- 
ceeding to the nauseous task of cutting up the animal. The 
feast was prolonged, but at length the men selected for the 
operation went on deck, with an air of importance, and full 
confidence. "What was their astonishment to find that the 
whale was no longer alongside! It seems that the ship, 
driven before the wind, had dragged at the animal, the cord 
had broken, and the rich prize, which had caused so much 
peril and fatigue, had sunk to the bottom of the sea! 

A dead whale, if left in the water, soon putrifies : it swells 
to an enormous size, until at least a third of the carcass ap- 
pears above the surface of the water, and sometimes the 
body bursts by the force of the air generated within. 

After the whale has been secured to the ship's side, "the 
next operation is what is called " flensing," or securing the 
blubber and whalebone, which occupies about four hours, 
and is, as may be well imagined, anything but an agreeable 
occupation. The harpooners, having spikes on their feet to 
prevent their falling from the slippery surface, begin with 
a kind of spade and huge knives to make long parallel cuts 
from end to end, which are divided by cross-cuts into pieces 
of about half a ton. These are hoisted on deck, and after 
being reduced into smaller pieces, are put into casks and 
stowed away in the hold. When the flensing is proceeding 
and reaches the lips, which contain much oil, the Avhalebone 
is exposed and detached by means of bone handspikes and 
bone knives, and is hoisted upon deck in one mass, where it 
is split and stowed away. The two jaw-bones, for the quan- 
tity of oil they contain, are taken on deck, after which the 



158 WHALE FISHER Y IN THE SO UTHERN SEAS. 

huge carcass is abandoned to the birds and sharks, which 
are always waiting for their share, and speedily devour it. 

In the early period of the Northern whale fishery, the 
animals being numerous and easy of capture, settlements 
were formed on the ice-coasts for boiling the blubber and 
extracting the oil, which was sent home in casks ; but when 
the whales diminished, and the fishermen were obliged to 
seek them in the open sea, the capture became more diffi- 
cult and dangerous, the settlements were abandoned, and 
the blubber was, for economy's sake, sent home to be boiled. 
In the different parts to which whale-ships are bound, there 
are establishments for extracting the oil; those at Hull are 
on the outskirts of the town. The blubber when conveyed 
to the boiling house is emptied from the casks into large 
vats, where it undergoes certain processes for extracting 
the oil. 

The whale fishery in the Southern seas does not present 
the same amount of dangers which beset the Avhalers of the 
ice-regions, and differs in some particulars, being specially 
for the capture of the sperm whale. 

It was well remarked by an old whaling captain that " if 
the Almighty had gifted the whale with a knowledge of his 
strength, few indeed would be caught." It is truly so, and 
there are occasions when the whale, inoffensive in its general 
habits, displays an amount of power and hostility which 
forms one of the grandest and most exciting spectacles that 
could be witnessed. In fact, the dangers which the whalers 
incur in their hazardous occupation, are most imminent. 

As an instance of the spirit of mischief which sometimes 
animates the ocean monarch, I will relate what happened to 
the whale-ship, the Essex, Captain Pollard, in the Pacific 
Ocean. A number of sperm whales being signalled by the 
look-out, three boats were manned and sent in pursuit. The 
mate's boat was struck by one of them, and he was obliged 
to return to the ship to repair the damage. While he was 



THE " ESSEX" ATTACKED BY A WHALE. 159 

thus engaged, a sperm ^vhale, thought to be about eighty- 
five feet long, broke water about twenty yards from the ship 
on tlie weather-bow. He was going at the rate of about 
three knots an hour, and the ship at nearly the same rate, 
when he struck the bows of the vessel just forward of her 
chains. At the shock produced by the collision of two such 
mighty masses of matter in motion, the ship shook like a leaf. 
The whale passed under the ship, grazing her keel, and then 
appeared at about the distance of a ship's length, lashing the 
sea with fins and tail, as if suffering intense agony. He was 
evidently hurt by the collision, and greatly enraged. In a 
few minutes he seemed to recover himself, and started with 
great speed directly across the vessel's course to windward. 
Meanwhile the hands on board discovered the ship to be 
gradually settling down at the bows, and the pumps were in- 
stantly rigged. While working at them, one of the men 
cried out "God have mercy! he comes again!" 

The whale had turned about one hundred yards from the 
ship, and was making for her with double his former speed, 
his pathway wdiite with foam. Rushing head on, he struck 
her again at the bow, and the tremendous blow stove her in. 
The whale dived under again and disappeared, and the ship 
went down in ten minutes from the first collision. 

The crew took to their boats as the vessel was sinking, 
and after fearful hardships and sufferings, the survivors of 
this catastrophe reached the low island called Ducies. It was 
a mere sandbank, nearly barren, and they could only obtain 
water and some wild-fowl. On this uninhabited island, 
dreary as it was, three of the men chose to remain, rather 
than experience again the uncertainties of the sea. The 
poor fellows were never afterwards heard of. The three 
boats, with the remainder of the crew, put off for the island 
of Juan Fernandez, two thousand miles distant. The mate's 
boat was taken up by the Indian, of London, ninety-three 
days from the time of the catastrophe, with only three sur- 



160 SI]!fG ULAR ANECDOTE OE A D JJTOH SEAMAN. 

vivors. The captain's boat was fallen in with by the Dau- 
phin^ but with only two men living. Thus, out of a crew of 
twenty, only five remained to tell the story of the whale's 
victory. 

If the huge monster, in the exercise of his enormous 
strength, can shatter a large sailing vessel in such a way 
as to cause its destruction, you may readily imagine what 
perils are encountered by the hardy crews of the whaling- 
boats. A singular story is related of a Dutch harpooner, 
James Vienkes. A wounded whale had disappeared by 
diving, and the seamen were preparing to deal it a second 
stab, when the animal, on returning to the surface, struck 
its head against the boat and dashed it to atoms. Vienkes 
was hurled into the air, and fell on the monster's back, but 
contrived to bury his harpoon, which he had not let go, into 
it, and by means of this and the line he still held in his hand, 
he secured himself from slipping off. He called the other 
fishermen to his assistance, but their efforts to approach 
the whale were in vain. The captain of the ship, seeing no 
other way of saving his life, called out to him to cut the 
rope ; but the harpooner was unable to do this, as his knife 
was in his trousers pocket, and he could not let go his hold 
for an instant. The whale was meanwhile advancing along 
the surface of the water at a swift rate, and it was fortunate 
for its rider that it did not dive. The sailors were begin- 
ning to despair of their comrade's life, when the harpoon by 
which he was supporting himself came out of the animal's 
body. He profited by the circumstance to cast himself into 
the sea, and struggling against the waves, regained the 
boats which had been unable to succor him. He was picked 
up at the moment his strength was exhausted, and his com- 
panions, furious at the disaster, pursued the whale, and 
killed it. 

A writer relates : *' Being myself in the first boat which 
approached a whale, I struck my harpoon at arm's length, 



NAIillOW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW. 161 

by which we fortunately evaded a blow which appeared to 
be aimed at the boat. Another boat then advanced, and an- 
other harpoon was struck, but not with the same result, for 
the stroke was immediately returned by a tremendous blow 
from the fish's tail. The boat was sunk by the shock, and 
at the same time Avhirled round with such velocity that the 
boat-steerer was precipitated into the water on the side next 
to the fish, and carried down to a considerable depth by its 
tail. After a minute or so he arose to the surface, and was 
taken up along with his companions into another boat." 

" In one of my earliest voyages," observes the same 
writer, "I remarked a circumstance which excited my high- 
est astonishment. One of the harpooners struck a whale : it 
dived, and all the assisting boats had collected round the 
fast boat before it rose to the surface. The first boat that 
approached it advanced incautiously. It rose with unex- 
pected violence beneath the boat, and projected it and all 
the crew to the height of some yards into the air. It fell on 
its side, and cast all the men into the water ; one was some- 
what injured, but the rest escaped." 

In the year 1804, the ship Adonis, being in company with 
several others, struck a large whale off the coast of New 
Zealand, which became furious, and destroyed nine boats 
belonging to the different vessels, and then escaped. It was 
captured afterwards, however. Many harpoons of various 
vessels were found in its body. 

This whale was extensively known to the fishermen un- 
der the name of" New Zealand Tom." 

Sometimes the rope to which the harpoon is attached 
gets carried oiF, at a prodigious rate, by a whale in its efforts 
to escape, and the boat is carried far out to sea, and exposed 
to fearful perils. The annals of the whale fishery have 
many thrilling stories of wonderful escapes in such instances. 
A very remarkable instance occurred in connection with the 
ship Independence, Captain Belair. While cruising in thr 



162 NARROW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW. 

Pacific Ocean, a whale was seen, and two boats were sent to 
capture it. The harpoon was fixed, and the boats were 
soon out of sight of the ship. An liour or two passed away, 
when suddenly another whale rose in the water, only a few 
yards from the vessel. The temptation to effect its capture 
was too strong for the captain, who ordered the remaining 
boat to be lowered, and, leaving but one man and two boys 
to take care of the ship, sprang into the boat with the rest 
of the crew. The harpoon was plunged into this whale also, 
and they were carried with the speed of the wind about 
fifteen miles from the ship. Then the whale plunged per- 
pendicularly into the depths of the ocean. It was not long 
before they saw him, fathoms deep in the crystal waters, 
rushing up with open jaws to destroy the boat. By skilfully 
evading the attack, they escaped twice; but the third time, 
as the monster rose, he struck the boat in the centre of the 
keel, scattering the fragments and the crew over the waves, 
and then, plunging into the deep, disappeared. The captain 
and the men were now in the water, clinging to the pieces 
of the demolished boat. They were many miles from the 
ship, and could not be seen from the deck. The other boats 
were gone they knew not where. The hours passed slowly 
away, as they were drifting along at the mercy of the waves, 
until six o'clock in the evening. 

The sun had now disappeared behind the distant waves, 
and a dreary night was settling down over the ocean. Just 
then they saw in the distance one of the absent boats re- 
turning to the ship. It was, however, far off, apparently 
beyond the reach of their loudest cries, and their hopes 
again fell. The boat at length drew nearer, and they re- 
doubled their shouts ; and at length they were heard, taken 
from the water, and carried almost lifeless to the ship. 

The utmost care is requisite in " paying out'' the rope 
when the whale is harpooned, so that no impediment occurs. 
The safet}'- of the boat's crew depends upon the watchful- 



FATAL ACCIDENT TO A EARPOONER. 163 

ness of the man entrusted with this important duty. Scores- 
by, one of the most distinguished whalers that has ever 
been known on these perilous enterprises, records an in- 
stance which had a fatal consequence : 

" As soon as the boats came within hailing distance (sent 
in pursuit of the whales), my anxiety induced me to call out 
and inquire what had happened. 'We have lost Carr!' 
This awful intelligence, for which we were altogether unpre- 
pared, shocked me exceedingly, and it was some time before I 
was able to inquire into the particulars of the accident 
which had deprived us of one of our shipmates. As far as 
could be collected from the confused accounts of the crew of 
the boat of which he went out in charge, the circumstances 
were as follow: The two boats that had long been absent on 
the outset, separated from their companions, and, allured by 
the chase of a whale and the fineness of the weather, they pro- 
ceeded until they were far out of sight of the ship. The whale 
they pursued led them into a vast shoal of the species. They 
were, indeed, so numerous that their ' blowing' was inces- 
sant, and there could not have been less than one hundred. 
Fearful of alarming tliem without striking any, the crews in 
the boats remained for some time motionless, watching a 
favorable opportunity for commencing the attack. A whale 
at length arose so near the boat of which William Carr was 
harpooner, that he ventured to pull towards it, though it 
was meeting him, and afforded but an indifferent chance of 
success. He, however, fatally for himself, succeeded in har- 
pooning it: the boat and fish, passing each other with great 
rapidity after the stroke, the line was jerked out of its place, 
and instead of ' running over' the stern, was thrown over 
the gunwale. Its pressure in this unfavorable position so 
careened the boat that the side sank below the water, and it 
began to fill. In this emergency the harpooner, who was a 
fine active fellow, seized the bight of the line, and attempted 
to relieve the boat by restoring it to its place ; but, by some 



164 DANOERS TO WHALERS FROM THE IGE. 

singular circmnstance which could not be accounted for, a 
turn of the line flew over his arm, in an instant dragged him 
overboard, and plunged him under water to rise no more! 
So sudden was the accident, that only one man, who had his 
eye on him at the time, was aware of what had happened ; 
so that Avhen the boat righted — which it immediately did — 
though half full of water, they all at once, on looking round 
at the exclamation of the man who had seen him launched 
overboard, inquired, ' What has got Carr?' It is scarcely 
possible to imagine a death more awfully sudden and unex- 
pected." 

Some boats of the whale-ship Aimwell being in pursuit of 
these monarchs of the ocean, harpooned one. When struck, 
the animal only dived for a moment, and then rose again be- 
neath the boat, struck it in the most vicious manner with 
its tail and fins, broke and upset it, and then disappeared. 
The crew, seven in number, got on the bottom of the boat; 
but the unequal action of the lines, which remained entan- 
gled with the boat, rolled it over occasionally, and thus 
plunged the men repeatedly beneath the Avater. Four of 
them recovered themselves, and clung to the boat; but the 
other three were drowned before assistance could arrive. 

In the Arctic seas the whalers arc exposed to many dan- 
gers from the ice. About the year 1856, Captain Deuchars, 
a most experienced navigator, in command of a fine strong 
vessel, the Princess Charlotte, lost it in Melville Bay. It 
was a fine morning, and all on board were anticipating a 
very successful voyage ; the steward had just reported 
breakfast ready, when the captain, seeing the floes of ice 
closing together ahead of the ship, remained on deck to see 
her pass safely between them ; but they closed too quickly 
— the vessel was almost through when the points of ice 
caught her sides abreast of the mizzen-mast, and passing 
through, held the wreck up for a few minutes, barely allow- 
ing time enough for the crew to escape and save their boats. 



WONDERFUL ESCAPE OF THE TRAFALGAR. 165 

Poor Captain Deuchars thus lost his breakfast and his ship 
within ten minutes. 

A wonderful case of delivei'ance from apparently certain 
destruction among tlie ice is recorded of the Trafalgar^ an 
Arctic Avhale-ship. The account is given by Mr. Gibson, 
surgeon of the ship : 

" Blowing a fresh gale, Avith rain, the floe to which the 
vessel Avas made fast set down under the lee ice, so as to 
render our situation perilous. Towards midnight we became 
unexpectedly entangled among heavy pieces of ice and floes, 
when the ship received some severe blows on her beams. 
Finding it impossible to get out, we lay to, and in half an 
hour the ship was close beset. Though I retired to bed 
when the ship was enclosed, I expected every minute to be 
called to quit it. Soon after, a large piece of ice pressing on 
the vessel opposite my bed-cabin, broke two or three of the 
timbers with a dismal noise. Thinking all was over, I sprang 
out of bed and found to my great consternation that the 
ship was under an enormous pressure from numerous large 
masses of ice surrounding her on all sides, without an open- 
ing of Avater sufficient for about two miles ; and no other 
ship was in sight, although the Aveather Avas clear. Most of 
the creAV Avere providing for shipAvreck, and many of the peo- 
ple Avere supplicating Divine mercy for deliverance. Four 
days' alloAvance Avere cooked Avith all speed, other provisions 
Avere taken on deck, and everything of importance placed in 
readiness to be throAvn on the ice. At noon, the man on the 
mast-head saAv a ship, on Avhich Ave instantly made signals of 
distress. At this time a dead silence prevailed throughout 
the ship, the croAV looking on one another in aAvful suspense. 
At one time the pressure Avas so strong that the panels of 
the captain's state-room were forced out of their framing. 
About half an hour after this the ship Avas suddenly throAvn 
upon her larboard side, on Avhich all hands sprang upon 
deck. I shall never forget the confusion of the poor men. 



166 APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS. 

nor their wild looks when they gained the deck — for half of 
them were below at the time of the shock, and from the 
smallness of the hatch only one could get up at a time. Some 
leaped upon the ship's side and were going upon the ice, 
when the captain cried out to them to behave like men, and 
to stick to the ship so long as she remained above the water. 
We all stood on that part of the vessel nearest the ice, with 
our bags of clothing on our shoulders. For about fifteen 
minutes we had patiently waited our doom, when, by the in- 
terposition of Divine Providence, the wind changed, the ice 
began to set off from the ship, and in fifteen minutes more 
she recovered her upright position. The water now rapidly 
spread among the surrounding ice, and finally the vessel was 
warped out and floated safely on the waves." 

A feaful series of calamities befell a small squadron of six 
very fine whaling vessels in 1830, during a storm in Baffin's 
Bay. Masses of ice were driven upon them, by which they 
were completely beset. The ships were ranged under the 
shelter of a large floe, having water barely sufficient to float 
them. Here they formed a line, one behind the other, stand- 
ing close, stern to stem, and being at the same time so pressed 
against the ice, that in some places a boat-hook could with 
difficulty be inserted in the space. The sky darkened, the 
gale increased, the floes began to overlap each other, and 
closed upon the ships in an alarming manner. The sailors 
then attempted to saw out a sort of dock, where they hoped 
to be relieved from this severe pressure ; but soon a huge 
flow was driven upon them with irresistible violence. The 
Eliza Swan, of Montrose, received the first shock, and was 
saved only by the ice raising her up. It next struck the 
St. Andreiv, of Aberdeen, amidship, breaking about twenty 
of her timbers, and staving a number of casks ; but it then, 
fortunately, moved along her side, and went off by the stem. 
It now reached successively the Baffin, of Leith ; the Achilles, 
of Dundee; the Ville de Dieppe, a French ship; and the 



APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS. 167 

Battler, of Leith, and dashed against them with such tre- 
mendous fury, that these four noble vessels, which had 
braved for years the tempests of the Polar seas, were in a 
quarter of an hour shattered into fragments. The scene 
was awful: the grinding noise of the ice, tearing open their 
sides, and the masts breaking off and falling in every direc- 
tion, were added to the cries of two hundred sailors, leaping 
upon the frozen surface with only such portions of their 
clothes as they could snatch in a single instant. The Rattler 
is said to have become the most complete wreck ever known. 
She was literally turned inside out, and her stem and stern 
carried to the distance of a gun-shot from each other; and 
the Achilles had her sides pressed together, and her stern 
thrust out, and her decks and beams broken into innumerable 
fragments. 

Such are some of the perils which have been related by 
the hardy travelers of the ocean Avhose years have been 
spent in continued struggles, not only with the element, 

' ' Boundless, endless, and sublime. 
The image of eternity, — " 

but with the huge monarch of the waters, whose reign has 
been disputed by a greater power in creation, who " sees all 
things for his use." 

" Thou little knowest 
What lie can brave, who, born and nurst 
In Danger's patbs, has dared her worst!" 





CHAPTER XII, 

SHARES— THE PIRATES OF THE OCEAN. 

IMAGINE a Shark seventy feet long, with a 
tooth four inches and a half in the enamel, or 
the part visible above the socket, jaws with 
the bow about thirteen feet, and a mouth 
capable of stretching more than twenty-six 
feet around! This was one of the species of 
fossil sharks, an antediluvian animal, which has been dis- 
covered in the limestone rocks, the teeth and the vertebree 
(small bones or joints composing the spine or back-bone) en- 
abling the geologist to determine the species to which the 
animal belongs. 

A tooth, the size of that mentioned, was shown to the 
distinguished French naturalist, Lac6p^de, and, in order to 
discover the proportions of the animal to which it belonged, 
he measured first the teeth, and next the stuffed specimens 
of all the sharks preserved in the Museum of Natural His- 
tory in Paris, and he found in every instance that the rela- 
tive proportions they bore to each other was one to two 
hundred, and he was thus enabled to ascertain the pro- 
digious size and capacity of this formidable antediluvian 
animal. 

Although the sharks of our own time are not of the same 
monstrous proportions, they are, from their immense strength 
and voracity, the objects of dread to those who behold them 
in their native element. 

" The type of horror and remorseless hate, 
Of villainy the worst." 



INDISCRIMINATE APPETITE OF THE 8IIARK. 169 

The White Shark in particular, one of the largest of tlie 
tribe, and frequently weighing as much as a thousand 
pounds, sometimes measuring from twenty-five to thirty feet 
in length, abounding in warm latitudes, and attacking every- 
thing within his reach, deserves the title given to him of 
" the pirate of the ocean." When we relate that a lady's 
work-box has been found in the stomach of one of these 
sharks, and the papers of a ship that had been thrown over- 
board: that the baskets, shavings, cordage, ducks, hens, and 
buffalo-hides, etc., which had been thrown into the sea one 
morning from Captain Hall's ship, the Alceste, were found in 
the body of a captured monster shortly afterwards ; that in 
another was discovered a tin canister, which, on being opened, 
Avas found to be nearly filled with old coins, you Avill have 
some idea of his indiscriminate appetite. He will devour 
even those of his own species. An anecdote is related of a 
Laplander capturing a shark, and fastening it to his canoe ; 
he soon missed it, however, without an idea of how it had 
happened. A short time afterwards he took another shark 
of much larger size, in which, when opened he found the 
shark he had lost. An officer states tliat when some mid- 
shipmen had caught a shark, they pulled him into their boat, 
cut open his stomach, and then sent him back into the water. 
His body was instantly attacked by the sharks nearest to 
him, and was torn in pieces. The experiment was repeated 
with the same result. 

The tenacity of life in the shark family is something ex- 
traordinary. The fish has been known to be active for 
many hours in the sea after its head has been taken off. In- 
stances have been known of a shark having taken a bait in 
the depth of the sea, after its liver had been taken out for 
the purpose of extracting oil, and also when the Avhole of 
the entrails had been removed. 

But a far worse character attaches itself to the shark, 
which is, his preference for human flesh : of all other food, 



170 PREFERENCE FOR HUMAN FOOD. 

it is this which he most prizes, and numbers of persons fall 
victims to his voracity in the seas he frequents. It is ter- 
rible to think of such a fate, for the huge monster is not 
only capable of snapping off a limb in a moment, or biting a 
person in two, but has been known to swallow a man alive. 
It is also stated on good authority that a shark was taken off 
the island of St. Margaret, which weighed fifteen hundred 
pounds, and the stomach was found to contain the whole 
body of a horse, which had probably been thrown over- 
board from some ship. 

The following horrible tragedy is related: "As the ship 
Kai^nah was leaving the port of Nassau, a pilot fell overboard 
from her boat, in which he was being towed. The ship was 
stopped, and the boat instantly left for his rescue, while two 
life-buoys were thrown from the ship. The boat got close 
enough to give him the end of an oar, which he took, and 
cried, 'For God's sake save me!' The men were about to 
haul him into the boat, when he was carried down by a large 
shark which came up at the moment, taking the oar with 
him. 

"A few days after the fatal accident, a shark was captured 
in Nassau harbor, and on being opened, the pilot's right 
hand and wrist, with a portion of his shirt (by which the 
hand was identified), a goat's head, with horns nine inches 
long, and a turtle's head were found in his stomach." 

The French name this fearful animal the Requin, or Re- 
quiem (the rest or stillness of death), in allusion to the deadly 
character of his habits : to add to the horror of his appear- 
ance, a phosphoric light is emitted from his huge body when 
near the surface of the water. To get at human flesh, the 
shark has been known to bound several feet out of the sea, 
and seize the unwary sailor occupied in the rigging of the 
vessel, when in full sail, and to leap into fishing-boats, and 
grapple with the men at their oars. 

" No wonder that every man's hand should be raised 



TUI-: VULNERABLE PART OF THE SHARK. 171 

against this ferocious monster; and although of such fearful 
strengtli and audacity, he is sometimes overcome. The na- 
tives on the African coast show great courage and dexterity 
in attacking him. The mouth of the shark being placed in 
the lower part of the head, he is obliged, in order to seize 
his prey, to turn round in the water, and the negroes, taking 
advantage of this, thrust a knife into his stomach, the part 
where he is most vulnerable, for the skin on the upper por- 
tion of his body is so hard and rough that it forms a kind of 
armor, defending him from the bites of any animal he may 
encounter in the deep. This skin is even made use of by 
carpenters for polishing hard-grained wood, and it is also 
employed for other purposes where hardness and strength 
are required. 

An amusing instance of punishing a shark for his greedi- 
ness was related some years ago. The author of the article 
says : 

" Looking over the bulwarks of the schooner, I saw one of 
these watchful monsters winding lazily backwards and for- 
wards like a long meteor ; sometimes rising until his nose dis- 
turbed the surface, and a gushing sound, like a deep breath, 
rose through the breakers, at others, resting motionless on 
the water, as if listening to our voices and thirsting for our 
blood. As Ave were watciiing the motions of this monster, 
Bruce, a lively little negro and my cook, suggested the pos- 
sibility of destroying it. This was, briefly, to heat a fire- 
brick in the stove, wrap it up hastily in some old greasy 
cloth as a sort of disguise, and then to heave it overboard. 
This was the work of a few minutes, and the effect was tri- 
umphant. The monster followed after the hissing prey; we 
saw it dart at the brick like a flash of lightning, and gorge 
it instanter. The shark rose to the surface almost immedi- 
ately, and his uneasy motions soon betrayed the success of 
the manoeuvre. His agonies became terrible: the waters 
appeared as if disturbed by a violent squall, and the spray 



172 BAITING THE SHARK. 

was driven over the taifrail where we stood, while the gleam- 
ing body of the fish repeatedly burst through the dark 
waves, as if writhing with fierce and terrible convulsions. 
Sometimes, also, we thought we heard a shrill, bellowing 
cry, as if indicative of anguish and rage, rising through the 
gurgling waters. His fury was, however, soon exhausted; 
in a short time the sounds broke away into distance, and the 
agitation of the sea subsided. The shark had given himself 
up to the tides, as unable to struggle against the approach 
of death, and they were carrying his body unresistingly to 
the beach." 

In the South Sea Islands sharks are caught by means of 
a log of wood, set afloat with a strong rope attached to it, 
having a noose at the head. The fish, with his natural im- 
petuosity, gets his head entangled, and, floundering about in 
attemps to escape, becomes tired out, and is then easily dis- 
patched. 

Captain Basil Hall gives an interesting account of the 
capture of one of these huge monsters. He says : 

" The sharp, curved dorsal (the back) fin of an enormous 
shark was seen rising about six inches above the water, and 
cutting the glazed surface of the sea by as fine a line as if a 
sickle had been drawn along it. ' Messenger, run to the cook 
for a piece of pork,' cried the captain, taking the command 
with as much glee as if an enemy's cruiser had been in sight. 
'Where's your hook, quarter-master?' 'Here, sir, here!' 
cried the fellow, feeling- the point, and declaring it was as 
sharp as any lady's needle ; and at the next instant piercing 
with it a huge junk of pork, weighing four or five pounds. 
The hook, which is as large as a little finger, has a curvature 
about as large as a man's hand when half closed, and is six 
or eight inches in length, while a formidable line, furnished 
with three or four feet of chain attached to the end of the 
mizzen-toptail-halyard, is now cast into the ship's wake. 

" Sometimes the very instant the bait is cast over the 




SHARK FISHING. 



174 EXTBAORDINART STRENGTH OF THE TEETH. 

stern, the shark flies at it with such eagerness that he actu- 
ally springs partly out of the water. This, however, is rare. 
On these occasions he gorges the bait, the hook, and a foot 
or two of the chain, without any mastication, and darts off 
with the treacherous prize with such prodigious velocity 
that it makes the rope crack again as soon as the coil is 
drawn out. Much dexterity is required in the hand which 
holds the line at this moment. A bungler is apt to be too 
precipitate, and jerk away the hook before it has got far 
enough into the shark's maw. The secret of the sport is to 
let the monster gulp down the whole bait, and then to give 
the line a violent pull, by which the barbed point buries 
itself in the coat of the stomach. When the hook is first 
fixed, it spins out like the log-line of a ship going twelve 
knots. 

" The suddenness of the jerk with which the poor devil is 
brought up often turns him quite over. No sailor, however, 
thinks of hauling a shark on board merely by the rope fas- 
tened to the hook. To prevent the line breaking, the hook 
snapping, or the jaw being torn away, a running bowline is 
adopted. This noose is slipped down the rope, and passed 
over the monster's head, and is made to join at the point of 
junction of the tail with the body ; and now the first part of 
the fun is held to be completed. The vanquished enemy is 
easily drawn up over the taffrail, and flung on deck, to the 
delight of the crew." 

A sight of this voracious monster in his own element is 
never to be forgotten. It has been observed that the word 
"villain" has never been written in more unmistakable 
characters on any living creature than the shark. His 
appearance exhibits every character of ferocity. The head 
is large ; the mouth wide and grasping ; but the teeth, the 
most appalling features of the animal, are remarkable for 
their power of mischief: there are six rows in the upper jaw, 
and four in the lower. The teeth are triangular, some- 



WORSHIP OF SHARKS, 175 

times two inches in breadth, sharp-edged, and notched Hke a 
saw, and as they are so planted in the jaw that each tooth 
is capable of independent action, being furnished with its 
own muscles, and as the strength of the jaws is enormous, 
they form a most terrific and formidable apparatus of de- 
struction. 

Although no part of the shark is wholesome for food, the 
flesh being coarse and leathery, yet it is eaten by the na- 
tives of Guinea, after being kept a considerable time to 
render it tender. The fins being gelatinous are used by the 
Chinese for making a rice soup. The liver yields an abun- 
dance of oil which is much esteemed. I have already men- 
tioned the uses to which the skin is applied. 

On some of the African coasts there are human beings so 
depraved and superstitious as to worship this fearful mon- 
ster, and who believe that a person swallowed by him is sure 
to go to heaven. Their mode of adoration is thus : The 
negroes proceed in their boats to ofi'er sacrifices of goats, 
poultry, and other things. But far more horrible still is the 
offering of an infant, reared for the purpose until it reaches 
the age of ten. The poor child is bound to a post on a 
sandy point at low water ; as the tide rises the sharks ar- 
rive, and tho infant is devoured, the parents fully believing 
that it will enter Paradise. We may ask ourselves if it is 
possible to find a more atrocious and dismal proof of human 
depravity! 

The South Sea Islanders had some strange superstitious 
ideas relative to some of the shark species. Although they 
would not only kill but eat certain sharks, the large blue 
^mdi {Squalus glaucus) were deified by them; and rather 
than attempt to destroy them, they would endeavor to pro- 
pitiate their favor by prayers and oflFerings. Temples were 
erected, in which priests officiated, and offerings were pre- 
sented to the deified monsters ; while fishermen and others, 
who were much at sea, sought their favor. Many funny 



176 FEARFUL INSTANCES OF SHARKS' RAPACITY. 

legends were formerly in circulation among the people rela- 
tive to the regard paid by the sharks at sea to priests of 
their temples, whom they were always said to recognize, and 
never to injure. But for the sharks, the South Sea Islanders 
would be in comparatively little danger from casualties in 
their voyages among the islands ; and^although, when armed, 
they have been known to attack a shark in the water, yet, 
when destitute of a knife or other weapon, they become an 
easy prey, and are consequently much terrified at such mer- 
ciless antagonists. 

A fearful instance is related of the rapacity of the shark, 
when a number of chiefs and people — altogether thirty-two 
■ — were passing from one island to another in a large double 
canoe. They were overtaken by a tempest, the violence of 
which tore their canoes from the horizontal spars by which 
they were united. It was in vain for them to endeavor to 
place them upright, or empty out the water, for they could 
not prevent their incessant overturning. As their only re- 
source, they collected the scattered spars and boards, and 
constructed a raft on which they hoped to drift to land. 
The weight of the whole number who were now collected on 
the raft was so great as to sink it so far below the surface 
that they sometimes stood above their kneos in water. 
They made very little progress, and soon became exhausted 
by fatigue and hunger. Destitute of a knife or any other 
weapon of defence, they fell an easy prey to these monsters. 
One after another was seized and devoured or carried away 
by them, and the survivors, who with dreadful anguish be- 
held their companions thus destroyed, saw the number of 
assailants apparently increasing as each body was carried 
away, until only two or three remained. The raft, thus 
lightened of its load, rose to the surface of the water, and 
placed them beyond the reach of the voracious jaws of their 
relentless destroyers. The voyage on which they had set 
out was only from one of the Society Islands to another, con- 



HOOKS FOR SHARK FISHING. 177 

seqiicutly they were not very far from land. The tide and 
the current now carried them to the shore, where they 
hmded, to tell the melancholy fate of their fellow-voyagers. 

The natives of Tahiti use hooks made of wood, and of the 
most formidable character, for shark fishing. These are a 
foot in length and an inch in diameter. They are such 
frightful implements that no fish loss voracious than a shark 
would venture to approach them. In some, the marks of the 
sharks' teeth are numerous and deep, and show the effect 
with which they have been used. 

One of the most s;ul and thrilling episodes of shark en- 
counters was published some years since, A small schooner 
called the Magpie was cruising between the island of Cuba 
and the Havannah, in search of pirates. One evening the 
sea and the air were so calm that the vessel lay on the bosom 
of the water like some huge animal asleep, with her head 
towards the shore. The crew were engaged in telling those 
marvelous stories which seamen believe, and never fail to 
narrate to each other in their hours of idleness, for such oc- 
casionally visit even the mariner afloat. Lieutenant Smith, 
the commander, who had been on the look-out for the pirate 
ship as long as twilight enabled him to do so, laid aside his 
glass and descended into the cabin. All above, below, and 
around was now lulled as in slumber, for the laugh and the 
voice of the story-teller had become silent. Presently the 
mate of the watch observed a small black cloud resting over 
the land. The cloud was gradually increasing, and although 
the n>ate saw no ground to apprehend danger, he thought it 
right to communicate the fact to his superior officer. Mr. 
Smith commanded him to keep a sharp look-out, and he would 
join him on deck immediately. A moment after, a squall, 
as strong as it was sudden, burst from the cloud, and just as 
the lieutenant had ascended to the deck, the schooner was 
upset, and immediately sank. 

Two of the crew were below, and they went down with 



178 ATTACK OF SHARKS ON A BOAT. 

her; the others, twenty-two in number, were left struggling 
with the quiet deep, for the squall had passed, and the sky 
and the sea were again tranquil. It w^as now discovered 
that the boat had drifted from the vessel, and floated. A 
rush was made towards her, and several of the men at- 
tempted to get into her on the same side. The consequence 
was that she became half full of water, upset, rolled over and 
over, and at length lay with her keel upwards. Some got 
across her keel, others supported themselves by holding on 
to her with their hands, and thus all were for a time safe. 

Mr. Smith now reminded the crew that it was impossible 
for them to remain long in this predicament, and exhorted 
them to right the boat and bale the water from her. He 
was immediately attended to ; the men on the keel relin- 
quished their seats, the boat was turned over, and two men 
were ordered into her to bale out the water. This they 
commenced doing with their hats, and it seemed probable 
that by perseverance their task would be accomplished. At 
this moment a man called out that he saw the fin of a shark. 
Immediately all was confusion; everyone endeavored to 
save himself, and in so doing rushed into needless danger. 
Smith begged them to persevere in attempting to clear the 
boat of water, and directed those not engaged in baling the 
water to keep splashing with their legs to frighten away 
the sharks. Again he was attended to ; four men were in 
the boat baling, and the water was rapidly decreasing, when 
a noise was heard, and more than a dozen sharks darted in 
amongst them. In the panic which ensued the boat was 
again upset, and the men were at the mercy of the marine 
monsters. At first the sharks played about among the men, 
occasionally rubbing against them; but presently a loud 
shriek arose from one of them — his leg was bitten from his 
body! The attack was now general; shrieks arose from one 
and another. Some were torn from the boat, and several sank 
into the abyss, either through being bitten or from fear. 



HORRIBLE FATE OF SOME SEAMEN. 179 

In this critical moment Lieutenant Smith was not dis- 
mayed. He still gave orders to the crew firmly and coolly, 
and was still obeyed by them. The boat was again righted, 
and the baling again commenced, Smith clinging to the 
stern while he directed and encourged his crew. For a mo- 
ment he ceased to splash, while he looked into the boat to 
see what progress his men were making. At this instant a 
shark bit oil" both his legs above the knees. With fortitude 
scarcely to be believed, he endeavored to conceal the fact 
from his remaining crew, but, in spite of all h,is endeavors to 
suppress it, a deep groan escaped him ; he loosed his hold of 
the boat and was about to sink, when two of his men caught 
hold of him and placed him in the stern-sheets. Although 
bleeding and in agony, he still exerted himself for his crew. 
He expressed his sorrow for their situation, gave them ad- 
vice affectionately yet coolly, and ended with these words : 
" If any of you survive this fearful night and return to 
Jamaica, tell the admiral that I was in search of the pirate 
when this lamentable occurrence took place ; tell him that I 
hope I have always done my duty, and that I " At this mo- 
ment some of the men endeavored to get into the boat, which 
was thus drawn on one side, and Lieutenant Smith rolled over- 
board, and sank to rise no more. The boat was now again 
upset. Some of the bleeding seamen placed themselves on 
the keel, but one by one dropped into the ocean. It was at 
eight o'clock when the Magpie sank, and before nine all on 
board of her were eaten by the sharks or drowned, with the 
exception of two, who succeeded in righting the boat and 
getting into her. They immediately began baling, and 
worked until they were nearly exhausted. Tlie sharks swam 
round the boat, and endeavored to upset her, but failing, 
and perhaps gorged already, at length departed. The men 
worked at intervals, until the boat was nearly free from 
water, and then lay down and slept until after daylight. The 
morning was fine but sultry. The men were hungry, thirsty, 




A FRIGHTFUL ENCOUNTER WITH SHARKS. 



PERILOUS CONDITION OF THE SURVIVORS. 181 

and fatigued : they looked around them ; an unbroken 
ocean, a cloudless sky, and a burning sun were all that were 
within their view. They began to think of the only re- 
source remaining for either — to kill his comrade and devour 
his flesh. They were men of equal strength, and both had 
knives. Each, however, seemed unwilling to resort to this 
horrible expedient except in the last extremity. The man 
at the stern (for they had separated from each other, in mu- 
tual apprehension, by nearly the whole length of the keel) 
knelt down and prayed, and his comrade followed his ex- 
ample. 

As the morning w^ent on they suffered intensely from 
thirst, and aggravated their sufferings by attempting to 
allay it with salt water. The madness of despair was begin- 
ning to develop itself in one of them w^hen a sail appeared 
in sight, which afterwards proved to be a brig steering 
towards them. One flung his jacket in the air, while the 
other hailed again and again, and sometimes both hailed 
together, although the brig was at such a distance that it 
was not possible their cries would be heard. She approached 
nearer and nearer, and so riveted were their minds on the 
brig that hunger and thirst were forgotten in the excite- 
ment of hope. The people on board the ship appeared to 
notice them, but just as they had reason to think that such 
was the case, she changed her course and hoisted additional 
sail. Still they attempted to gain their attention, and at- 
tempted to propel the boat with their hands; but all was in 
vain; the ship was becoming every moment more distant, 
and their chance of release from such a horrible condition, 
of course, fainter. 

At this moment one of the sailors conceived the bold 
project of swimming to the brig, which was by this time 
two miles and a half from them. His comrade remonstrated 
with him, so wild and hopeless did the undertaking appear 
to him, especially as the fins of sharks Avere seen here and 



182 THE SHARK FAMILY. 

there above the water. After a little hesitation, caused by 
the appeal of his shipmate, and a short prayer, he jumped 
over. The splash occasioned by his doing so caused the 
sharks to disappear, and the man in the boat well knew that 
they were in search of his comrade. Immediately after- 
wards, three of them passed the boat towards him. 

With the greatest anxiety the sailor in the boat watched 
his messmate : he swam well, kicking and splashing as he 
went, to frighten the sharks. Once he beheld one of them 
close to him; but he only swam the faster, and kicked more 
vigorously. The wind had freshened, the brig was sailing 
more fleetly, his cries were unheard by the crew, and he began 
to think he must yield himself a prey to the sharks. At last 
he saw a man look over the side of the vessel ; he held up 
both his hands, jumped up in the water, and was at length 
seen. A boat was got out, the brave swimmer was picked 
up, and Avas soon joined by his comrade on board the brig. 
The sharks were defrauded of their prey. The two sur- 
vivors of the Magpie were tried by a court-martial, and as a 
reward for their perseverance, industry, and obedience to 
their commander in circumstances of such peculiar peril, 
promoted to be warrant officers. 

To this family of the sharks, belongs the blue species, 
to which we have alluded, and which visits the coasts of 
England, during the pilchard and herring fishery, but whose 
chief residence is the Mediterranean. It is about seven feet 
long. The whole of the upper part is of a slate-blue color, 
and the under side nearly pure white. 

The Hammer-headed species are distinguished, as the 
name implies, from each side of the head being extended — 
hammer-shaped — into a kind of branch, which has the eyes 
at the outer extremity. Its habits are of the family charac- 
ter, and it never hesitates to attack man whenever an op- 
portunity offers. The Smooth Shark is so named from the 
smoothness and softer nature of its skin than its other rela- 



I 



THE GREENLAND SHARE. 183 

tions; it is about four feet in length, and is a frequent visitor 
to the British seas. The Dog-Fish is the most common of the 
minor members of the shark family. Tlie Spinous Shark, so 
named from its " prickles," which resemble those on the 
stems of a rose-bush, is not, happily, a frequent visitor to 
British waters, though of inferior size to most of the family, 
being from four to eight feet. The Angel-Fish, or Monk- 
Fish, or Shark-Ray, closes our list of the " ocean pirates." 
The depressed form, rounded head, with the eyes on the up- 
per surface, and the singularly expansive pectoral fins (which 
may, under the imaginative form of wings, have originated 
the designation of " angel ") distinguish this strange, and, on 
the whole, uncouth fish, which partakes something of tho 
character of the ray and the shark. It is not unfrequent on 
British coasts, and attains a considerable size, some weighing 
a hundred-weight. It is a fierce and dangerous fish to con- 
tend with, and fishermen tell strange stories of its strength 
and fury. 

The Greenland Shark which abounds in the Northern 
seas, although smaller than his powerful relative, being 
usually about fourteen feet long and six or eight feet in 
girth, partakes of his ferocity, and is a fearful enemy to the 
whale, whom he frequently worries to death, and feasts upon 
afterwards, scooping out pieces from his body as large as a 
man's head. The blubber appears to be a peculiarly "dainty 
dish" to this Arctic monster, and, while the crew of a ship 
are employed in cutting up a whale, he will come in for his 
share, and is so greedy for his favorite food that the men 
consider themselves safe from his gripe. Insensible to pain 
and tenacious of life as are all the larger sharks, the Arctic 
member of this ferocious tribe has been proved to be so in 
a remarkable degree. A few ugly wounds do not spoil his 
appetite, and even Avhen pierced through the body Avith a 
sailor's knife, he does not desert the whale's carcass until his 
appetite is fully satisfied. Even when the body is cut into 



184: THE BASKING SHARK. 

parts, the separate portions continue to show signs of life 
for some time, and it is unsafe to put the hand into his 
mouth a good while after the head has been separated from 
the trunk. 

The Greenlanders eat the flesh of this fish both fresh and 
dried, and twist his rough skin into a kind of rope. This 
shark is known to have seized a canoe covered with seal- 
skin (which was probably the attraction) in his mouth from 
beneath, and by closing his jaws, destroyed both th© canoe 
and its inmate. 

The largest of this terrible tribe, the Basking Shark, visits 
the British seas occasionally, though most abundant in the 
tropics. He has been seen off the coast of Scotland, and 
taken, from his enormous length, for the "sea-serpent," at- 
taining upwards of fifty feet. One of this size was captured 
some years ago at Kuraci, at the mouth of the Indus. Hap- 
pily, however, his voracity is not proportioned to his size, 
being satisfied chiefly with sea-slugs, small fishes, jelh^-fish, 
etc. Pennant mentions a basking shark twenty-six feet in 
length, taken off Anglesea, from which one hundred and 
fifty-six gallons of oil were obtained. 

It is said that the pilot-fish is a guide and companion to 
the shark in his pursuit of prey. Whether this pretty fish, 
which is only about a foot in length, really does befriend and 
assist the ocean monster is not quite certain, but some ac- 
counts give an air of probability to the belief. One of the 
first voyagers to the East Indies, alludes to this circumstance 
in a fanciful manner. Describing the sharks, he says: 
" These have waiting on them six or seven small fishes, 
which never depart, with guards (bands), blue and green, 
round their bodies, like comely serving-men, and they go 
two or three before them, and some on every side." We 
have seen three instances in which the shark was led by the 
pilot. When the former neared the ship the latter swam 
close to his snout or near one of his breast-fins ; sometimes it 



THE PILOT FISH. 185 

darted rapidly forwards or sideways, as if looking for some- 
thing, and constantly went back again to the shark. When 
we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a groat 
hook, the shark was about twenty paces from the ship, Witli 
the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the 
dainty morsel, and instantly swam back again to the shark, 
swimming many times around his snout and splashing, as if 
to give him exact information as to the bacon. The shark 
now began to put himself in motion, the pilot showing him 
the way, and in a moment he was ftist to the hook." 

Dr. Bennett, a Naturalist, says: " I have observed that if 
several sharks swim together, the pilot-fishes are generally 
absent; whereas, on a solitary shark being seen, it is equally 
rare to find it unaccompanied by one or more of these reputed 
guides. The only method by which I could procure this 
fish was, that when capturing a shark, I was aware that 
these faithful little fishes would not forsake him until he was 
taken aboard : therefore, by keeping the shark, when hooked, 
in the water until he was exhausted, or, as the sailors term 
it, "drowned," the pilot-fish kept close to the surface of the 
water over the shark, and, by the aid of a dipping-net, fixed 
to the end of a long stick, I was enabled to secure it with 
great facility." 

The pilot-fish, like the mackerel in shape, has five con- 
spicuous transverse bands round the body, and the general 
color is a silvery grayish-blue. It is common in the Medi- 
terranean and abounds in the warmer parts of the ocean. 




CHAPTER XIII. 

SEA-HORSES, AND NARWAHL8. 

^^^^LL the shores and borders of the Arctic zone 
are crowded with amphibious animals, which 




appear to form an intermediate link between 
whales and quadrupeds. Among these we 
will now notice the Morse (derived from the 
Russian morss) or Walrus (from the Norwegian hval-ros, 
whale-horse), also called by sailors the Sea-Horse. It is 
a large, shapeless, unwieldy creature, from twelve to fifteen 
feet in length, and eight to ten feet in circumference; the 
head small, the limbs short, and of an intermediate char- 
acter between fins and legs. The eyes are small and bril- 
liant; the nostrils are large, somewhat round, and placed on 
the upper part of the snout or muzzle. The lips are remark- 
ably thick and covered with bristles. The neck is short. 
The insides of the paws are protected by a rough horny kind 
of coating, of a quarter of an inch thick ; the fore-paws, or 
webbed hands, are from two to three feet in length, and, be- 
ing expansive, can be stretched to a considerable width. The 
color varies with age ; the young are black, they then be- 
come brown, and gradually pale, until in old age the walrus 
is white. The hairs, thick as a crow-quill, together with the 
long white tusks and fierce-looking eyes, give the animal a 



THE WALRUS. 187 

most diabolic look as it raises its head above the waves. 
Previous to the development of the tusks in the young wal- 
rus, the front face, when seen at a little distance, bears a 
striking resemblance to the human countenance ; and this 
appearance seems to have given rise to the fanciful reports 
of mermen, or mermaids, in the Northern seas. Captain 
Scoresb}' mentions that he has seen a sea-horse in such a 
position and under such circumstances that it was easy to mis- 
take it for a human being. The surgeon of his ship actually 
reported to him that he had seen a man's head just appearing 
above the water! 

The most remarkable feature of the walrus consists in the 
two teeth or tusks, which are directed downwards from the 
upper jaw, and are sometimes nearly two feet in length, di- 
verging at their points, and weighing from five to ten pounds. 
They are of beautiful white bone, almost equal to ivory, and 
are much employed in the fabrication of teeth, chessmen, 
umbrella-handles, whistles, and other small articles. The 
Greenlanders and other people of the North make hunting 
weapons from them, and domestic tools. These tusks not 
only serve the animal in procuring its food — which is said to 
be shell-fish and marine vegetables — but are formidable 
weapons against its foes. They also enable the walrus to 
raise its unwieldly bulk upon the ice, when its access to 
shore is prevented. 

The speed of this animal in the water is very great, and 
a contrast to its sluggish appearance on the ice. Large num- 
bers of them crowd together on the shore, and present a 
curious spectacle. The moment the first lands, so as to be dry, 
it will not stir until another comes, and urges it forward b}' 
beating it with its great tusks ; this one is served in the 
same manner by the next, and so on in succession, until 
the whole are landed, tumbling over one another in the 
operation. 

In the voyages of the early navigators of the Arctic seas, 



188 COOK'S ADVENTURE WITH THE WALRUS. 

they found the walrus, liitherto a partially unmolested ani- 
mal, easy of capture. Stephen Bennet, the captain of the 
God-speed, a vessel of sixty tons, writes : " We saw a huge 
morse putting his head above water, making such a horrible 
noise and roaring, that they in the boat thought he would 
have sunk it." In another place they found a multitude of 
these monsters of the sea lying like hogs upon a heap." 
They shot at them in vain until their muskets were spoilt 
and their powder was spent, when " we would blow their 
eyes out with a little pease-shot, and then come on the blind 
side of them, and with our carpenter's axe cleave their heads ; 
but for all that we could do, of about a thousand were killed 
but fifteen." They filled a hogshead with the loose teeth 
found on the island. The navigators became more expert in 
their cruel onslaught upon the poor animals, for in a subse- 
quent voyage the same captain relates that in six hours they 
slew from seven hundred to eight hundred, not only for the 
sake of the teeth, but boiling the blubber into oil. They 
also contrived to get on board two young walruses, male and 
female ; the latter died on the passage, but the other reached 
England, and was taken to Court, " where the King and 
many honorable personages beheld it with admiration." It 
soon, however, fell sick and died. 

Captain Cook, who was among the first to give anything 
like a distinct account of this curious animal, says : 

" We got entangled with the edge of the ice, on which 
lay an innumerable multitude of sea-horses. They were ly- 
ing in herds, huddled one over the other, like swine, and 
were roaring and braying very loud, so that in the night, or 
in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of the 
ice before we could see it. They were seldom in a hurry to 
get away until after they had been fired at, when they would 
tumble over each other into the sea in the utmost confusion. 
"Vast numbers of them would follow us, and come close up to 
the boats, but the flash of a musket in the pan, or even the 




< ♦ 



190 ENGOUNTEUa WITH THE WALRUS. 

bare pointing of one, would send them down in an instant. 
We never found the whole herd asleep, one being always on 
the watch. This, on the approach of a boat, would rouse 
the next, and the alarm being gradually communicated, the 
whole herd would speedily awake." 

The walrus is hunted chiefly for its oil and tusks; the na- 
tives of the northern shores esteem its flesh highly, and it is 
greedily eaten along with the lard and even the skin.' It has 
been calculated that about a thousand walruses were cap- 
tured yearly in the seas about Spitzbergen. 

Though generally of a peaceful and harmless nature, yet 
when attacked by foes, and especially by man, these huge 
animals will defend and support each other with remarkable 
courage and fidelity, fearlessly proceeding to the rescue of 
an unfortunate associate, and striving even to death for its 
deliverance. Martens relates having killed some sea-horses 
on the ice ; " the rest came all about our boat, and beat 
holes through the sides of it so that we took in abundance 
of water, and were at length forced to row away because of 
their great numbers, for they gathered themselves more and 
more together, and pursued us, as long as we could perceive 
them, very furiously." 

A similar incident is given, w^here a boat's crew pro- 
ceeded to attack two hundred of these animals, but they 
made almost desperate resistance ; some of them with their 
cubs on their backs; and one of them tore open the planks 
of the boat in two or three places. 

Captain Phipps relates that two oflScers engaged in an 
encounter with a walrus, who, on being wounded, plunged 
into the water, and obtained a reinforcement of its fellows, 
who made a desperate attack on the boat, wresting an oar 
from one of the men, and had nearly upset her, when another 
boat came to her assistance. 

The affection of the mother for its young is remarkable. 
Captain Cook, in his third voyage, says: 



AFFECTION OF THE WALRUS FOR ITS YOUNG. I 91 

" We hoisted out tlio boats, unci sent them in pursuit of 
the sea-horses that surrounded us. Our people were more 
successful than they had been before, returning Avith three 
large ones and a young one. On the approach of our boats 
towards the ice, they took all their cubs under their fins, and 
endeavored to escape with them into the sea. Several, 
whose young ones were killed or wounded, and Avere left float- 
ing on the surface, rose again, and carried them down, just as 
our people were going to take them into the boat, and they 
might be traced bearing them a great distance through the 
water, which was colored with their blood. We afterwards 
observed them bringing them up at times above the surface, 
as if for air, and again diving under it Avith a dreadful bel- 
loAving. The female in particular whose young had been de- 
stroyed and taken into the boat, became so enraged that she 
attacked the cutter, and struck her tusks through the bot- 
tom of it. 

Another instance is mentioned, where, in the vast sheet 
of ice Avhich surrounded the ships there Avere occasionally 
many pools, and Avhen the Aveather Avas clear and Avarm, 
animals of various kinds Avould frequently rise and sport 
about in them, or craAvl from thence upon the ice, to bask in 
the Avarmth of the sun. A Avalrus rose in one of these pools 
close to the ship, and finding everything quiet, dived doAvn 
again, and brought up its young, Avhich it held to its breast 
by pressing it Avith its flipper. In this manner it moved 
about the pool, keeping in an erect posture, and always di- 
recting the face of its young toAvards the vessel. On the 
slightest movement on board the mother released her flip- 
per, and pushed the young one under Avater; but Avhen 
everything Avas quiet, again brought it up as before, and 
for a length of time continued to play about the pool, to the 
great amusement of the sailors." 

Man is not the only assailant of the sea-horse. On land 
its especial foe is the great Polar bear, and between these 



192 BATTLES OF THE WALRUS AND POLAR BEAR. 

animals there are often terrible battles. On these occasions 
the tusks of the walrus stand in good service, for they man- 
age, usually, to beat off the grizly enemy, though at the cost 
of many severe wounds. 

An amusing instance is given of the cunning displayed 
by Bruin in his chase after the walrus : 

" One sunshiny day, one of these animals, about ten feet 
in length, rose in a pool of water not very far from us, and 
after looking round, drew his greasy carcass upon the ice, 
where he rolled about for a time, and at length laid himself 
down to sleep. A bear which had probably been observing 
his movements crawled carefully upon the ice on the opposite 
side of the pool, and began to roll about also, but apparently 
more from design than amusement, as he progressively 
lessened the distance that intervened between him and 
his prey. The walrus, suspicious of his advances, drew him. 
self up preparatory to a precipitous retreat into the water, 
in case of a nearer acquaintance with his playful but treach- 
erous visitor. On this the bear became instantly motionless, 
as if in the act of sleep, but after a time began to lick his 
paws and clean himself, encroaching occasionally a little 
more upon his intended prey. But even this artifice did not 
succeed : the wary walrus was far too cunning to allow him- 
self to be entrapped, and suddenly plunged into the pool, 
which the bear no sooner observed than he threw off all 
disguise, rushed toward the spot, and followed him in an in- 
stant into the water, where he was as much disappointed in 
his meal as we were of the pleasure of witnessing a very 
interesting encounter." 

At sea, the sword-fish is the most nimble and fiercest ene- 
my of the walrus. We should scarcely imagine from the 
uncouth and heavy appearance of the animal that it would 
exhibit any striking traits of intelligence ; but it seems that 
when young it is not difficult to domesticate. Lament men- 
tions having seen one about the size of a sheep on board a 



THE >SEA UNICORN. 1 93 

Norwegian vessel, and the most comical fac-simih imagin- 
able of an old walrus. It 1;;h1 been taken alive after the 
harpooning" of its mother, and was as playful as a kitten. It 
was a great favorite with all on board, and the only thing 
annoyed it was pulling its whiskers. 

Another tusky inhabitant of the Arctic seas is the Nar- 
ivahJ, or Monodon, or what is popularly called the Sea-Uni- 
corn, also an animal of the Mammalian order, about sixteen 
feet long and eight feet in circumference. In appearance 
the narwahl resembles a small whale, but with the addition 
of two long, straight, and pointed tusks, like spears, spirally 
twisted, directed forwards, and differing in length, the left 
one being about seven feet and a few inches, and the right 
one seven feet. It frequently happens, however, that only 
one of these tusks grows, and the other, somehow strangled, 
remains shut up in the bone like a nut. This will account 
for the appellation given to the narwahl of the "sea-unicorn." 
These tusks are of a whiter and harder substance than ivory. 
The Kings of Denmark possess a magnificent throne in the 
Castle of Rosenberg made of this material. 

In former times, when the origin of the horns of this 
animal was not well known, they were supposed to possess 
miraculous powers for healing diseases. The monks, in partic- 
ular, fostered the delusion, and pretended that every ill under 
the sun could be removed by their power. The narwahl has 
no true teeth in either jaw; the mouth is small and the lips 
are stiff, but it is able to catch and swallow so large a fish as 
the skate, the breadth of which is nearly three times as much 
as the width of its own mouth. It seems probable, however, 
that the horn serves them in this need, the fish being pierced 
with it, and killed before devoured. It is used, also, in dig- 
ging sea-plants from the rocks at great depths, in order to 
drive from their retreats the shrimps and other animals on 
which the narwahl feeds. The tail is about twenty inches 
long and four feet broad. It has no dorsal or back fin, but 




FIGHT BETWEEN WALRUS AND POLAR BEARS. 



HABITS OF TUB SEA UNICORN. 19S 

in place of it there is an irregular, sharp, fatty ridge, two 
inches in height, extending between two and three feet along 
the back, nearly midway between the snout and the tail. 
The prevailing color of the animal is bluish-gray on the back, 
variegated with numerous dark spots, with paler and more 
gray marks on a white ground at the sides. In old sea-horses 
the color is wholly white, or yellowish-white, with dark-gray 
spots. They are quiet and inoffensive in their habits, and 
s\yim Avith great rapidity. When respiring on the surface of 
the water, after blowing repeatedly, they frequently lie 
motionless for several minutes with the back and head just 
appearing above water. When harpooned, they dive to a con- 
siderable depth, and on returning to the surface for respira- 
tion, are readily killed in a few minutes with the lance. Near 
the coast they are always seen in flocks in the severest win- 
ters. The Greenlanders drive them with their sledges to 
fissures in the ice, where they are dispatched. The blubber, 
enwrapping the whole body, is from two to four inches in 
thickness. 

When a number of sea-horses are together, they divert 
themselves in gambols, when, their horns appearing above 
the water, as if brandished about like weapons, have a singu- 
lar effect, and the clattering noise they produce, with a kind 
of gurgling sound of the animals themselves, would lead one 
to suppose that some hostile proceedings were going on; but 
it is merely a playful movement of instruments which, if ag- 
gressively employed, would be dangerous. The force with 
which the narwahl urges its speed may be conceived by the 
circumstance that its tusk has been sometimes found driven 
through the planks of vessels. 





CHAPTER Xiy. 

NA UTILI TEE FLOATING NA VIGAT0R8 OF THE OCEAN. 

" Spread, tiny nautilus, the living sail, « 

Dive at thy choice, or brave the freshening gale 
If unreprov'd the ambitious eagle inount 
Sunward, to seek the daylight in its fount. 
Bays, gulf, and ocean's Indian widths shall be 
Till the world perishes a field for thee." — Wordsworth. 

MONG the most interesting and poetical illus- 
trations of the wonders of the ocean are the 
singular floating animals, of which the Nauti- 
lus — called by Byron "the ocean Mab," "the 
Fairy of the Sea " — will be, undoubtedly, 
familiar to you from the great beauty of its shell, which 
renders it a favorite ornament in many houses. 

Very interesting stories and verses have been written on 
the sailing and rowing habits of these curious animals ; and 
their appearance, when seen skimming the water, would 
strongly favor such ideas. The Dutch naturalist, Rumphius, 
in giving an account of the rarities at Amboyna, the princi- 
pal of the Molucca islands, says : " When the nautilus floats 
on the water, he puts out his head and all his tentacles, and 
spreads them upon the water ; but at the bottom he creeps 
in a reversed position, with his boat above him, and with his 
head and tentacles (feelers) on the ground, making a toler- 
ably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on the 
ground, creeping also, sometimes, into the nets of the fisher- 
men ; but after a storm, as the weather gets calm, they are 
seen in troops, floating on the water, being driven up by the 




THE NAUTILUS. 



198 THE PAPER NAUTILUS. 

agitation of the waves. This sailing is not, however, of long 
continuance, for having taken in all their tentacles, they 
upset their boat and so return to the bottom. 

Until a comparatively recent period, very little was 
known of the nautilus ; for, although shells were plentifully 
found on the shores of the warm seas it inhabits, the fish 
itself, living chiefly at the bottom of the sea, creeping like a 
snail, or lying in wait for runaway crabs or suchlike food, 
was difficult to obtain. However, a specimen was captured 
by Mr. Bennett, a naturalist, at the New Hebrides, and the 
great naturalist, Professor Owen, described the fish in a 
valuable memoir. The specimen is still preserved in the 
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in London. Little 
could be known from the shell itself; but here was the tiny 
navigator of the ocean, that would ride out a storm in which 
the strongest man-of-war might founder, revealed in all its 
most curious mechanism : the oars and aerial sails — disap- 
pearing, to give place to its real method of propulsion. 

The Paper Nautilus has eight tentacles, and one pair of 
these expand at their extremities into broad and thin mem- 
branes, which compose a Aveb of several sorts of fibres, inter- 
woven for the wrapping up of some parts, the fibres giving 
them an elasticity by wliich they can contract and grasp the 
parts they contain — whence the fable received through so 
many ages, of its sails ; the membranous arms of the fish are 
the organs for secreting and repairing the shells. 

The functions of the supposed sails of the paper nautilus 
were determined by an experiment. One of the " sails " was 
cut off" in several living specimens, the right sail Tbeing 
removed in some, the left in others ; and the creatures were 
then kept in a submarine cage, and supplied with food. 
Some of them survived the operation for four months, when 
it was found that the shell had grown only on that side on 
which the membranous arm had been preserved ; thus show- 



A WONDERFUL BUILJJKR. 199 

ing the animal to be the builder of its own liabitation, and 
that the expanded arms do not serve the purposes of sails. 

The real rower on the ocean is the beautiful little blue 
and silver shell-fish, the Glaucus, also a tenant of the warm 
seas, Avho swums with great swiftness by aid of its conical 
and oar-like appendages. 

A wonderful builder is the nautilus, as may be seen by 
the chambers it fashions for its own accommodation; for the 
shell is divided into partitions, and as the animal increases in 
size it forms another and larger apartment proportionate to 
its growth, leaving the others empty as it proceeds, until, 
satisfied with its labors, it becomes the occupant of the 
highest chamber, though still communicating with the cham- 
bers it lias abandoned, by means of a membranous tube 
which passes through the centre of each, enabling the nau- 
tilus by throwing air or gas into the empty chambers, or by 
exhausting them of air, to rise or sink into the water at \vill. 

How truly wonderful is the intelligence displayed by 
the tiny nautilus in its chambered dwelling ! " These beau- 
tiful arrangements," Dean Buckland once remarked, *' are 
and ever have been subservient to a common object — the 
construction of hydraulic instruments, of especial importance 
in the economy of creatures destined to move sometimes at 
the bottom, and at other times upon or near the surface of 
the sea. The delicate adjustments whereby the same prin- 
ciple is extended through so many grades and modifications 
of a single t^^pe, show the uniform and constant agency of 
some controlling intelligence ; and in searching for the origin 
of so much method and regularity amidst so much variety, 
the mind can only rest when it has passed back through the 
subordinate series of second causes to the great First Cause, 
which is found in the will and power of a great Creator." 

The Pearly Nautilus, thus named from the shell being 
lined with a layer of the most beautiful pearly gloss, inhabits 
the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Nothing can exceed the 



200 THE ARGONAUT. 

pure loveliness of this "gem of the deep;" the interior 
being white, like the finest poi'oelain, and streaked with red- 
dish chestnut. It is highly prized in Eastern countries, 
where it is made into drinking cups. The Chinese are par- 
ticularly expert in manuliicturing it into various ornaments. 

There are other floating navigators of the deep ; among 
others, the Snail-slime-fishes, which frequent the Arctic seas, 
and are found in immense quantities on the coast of Spitz- 
bergen. The shell is the boat of this animal, which it rows 
through the water by a dip of its raised fins. In this act 
the open extremity of the shell is its prow, the opposite end 
occupies the place of a poop, and the margin of the body 
resembles and performs the office of a keel. A writer says : 
*'l have often seen it with admiration and pleasure. He 
can move in a retrograde manner. When weary with row- 
ing, or when touched, the little boatman contracts his oary 
fins, and drawing \vitliin the shell, sinks to the bottom, 
where he rests for a short time. Then again he rises up- 
wards, rowing obliquely until the surface is attained, when 
his course is held in a straight line over the trackless surge. 
When taken out of the shell, although without injury and in 
the water, he immediately dies." 

Before quitting the nautilus, we may add, that the shells 
of this " ocean navigator" abound in the coral seas, and are 
cast on shore in such profusion, that many tons' weight are 
collected at New Caledonia and the Fiji Islands, and are con- 
veyed to Sydney. The young shells when polished obtain 
a high price. 

The Argonaut differs from the true nautilus, inasmuch as 
the shell is not divided into chambers, but has one spiral 
cavity, into which the animal can entirely withdraw itself. 
From the disproportionate size of the last whorl (a wreath 
or turning of the spires of univalves, or shells of one piece 
only), it has some resemblance to a canoe, the spire repre- 
senting the poop. If the waves rise or danger threatens, 



THE SEA BLADDER. 201 

the iirg-oiiaut withdraws all its arms into the shell, contracts 
itself there, and descends to the bottom. The body does 
not penetrate within the spire of the shell, nor does it 
adhere to it; at least, there is no muscular attachment, 
which led to the supposition that it occupied a shell belong- 
ing to some other animal. This freebooting stigma does not 
belong to the argonaut, for experiments have proved that 
the animal is its own builder, and consequently a rightful 
tenant of his mansion. 

There is a curious and highly interesting floating object 
to which we may call the reader's attention, the Sea-Bladder, 
called by seamen the "Portuguese man-of-war, and by the 
French sailors the "galley" or "frigate." This singular 
zoophyte, or animal plant, for it combines the two natures, is 
seen floating, sometimes singly, at other times in vast num- 
bers, in the tropical seas, and attracted the attention of 
naturalists from a very early period. The notion of its sailing 
properties may have arisen in consequence of the crest which 
it has the power of erecting along the ridge of his back, which, 
Avhen caught by the wind, assumes somewhat the appear- 
ance of a natural sail, by means of which it seems enabled 
to glide over the surface of the ocean. This, however, is not 
the case, as the creature does not move by this means, nor 
does it appear to possess the power of imparting any special 
direction to its course, w^hich is entirely at the mercy of the 
wind and waves. The body itself, upon which the ridge or 
crest erects itself, is of a slight half-transparent character, 
and has somewhat the appearance of an unusually solid soap- 
bubble, glistening with a more than ordinary amount of 
various colored hues. 

Mr. Bennett describes this body as of delicate crimson 
tints, as he saw it floating on the waves. There are also 
veinings of rich purple, and opaline flashes of azure, orange, 
and green, changing in color at every movement; and its 



202 Q-REAT BEAUTY OF SEA BLADDERS. 

long dependant tentacles or feelers are of the deepest 
purple. 

Dr Collingwood mentions having observed these splendid 
zoophytes in the Atlantic Ocean, near the equator, sailing 
by from time to time during the day, and attracting atten- 
tion by their large size and brilliant color. "They had the 
appearance of beautiful prismatic shells, standing upright 
on a rich blue cushion, the cell being radiated from the base 
or cushion to the circumference, which was fringed with a 
rich and bright rose color." He captured several specimens, 
and the largest measured in the bladder eight inches, and 
the greatest vertical circumference ten inches and a quarter. 
The long dependant tentacles or feelers are from four to 
five feet in length, and are capable of being extended much 
farther when shot off for the capture of prey. 

But the glory of these magnificent objects, so developed 
in their native element, fades, like sea-weeds, as the zoo- 
phyte is taken from its watery home, with the exception of 
the long tentacles, which retain their color (dark purple) 
until decomposition takes place. " There is no rose without 
a thorn," is a well-known saying; and this gaily-colored 
zoophyte has a dangerous stinging property to those who 
handle it incautiously. An instance is related of a sailor 
seeing one within reach from a boat, who took it up with 
his naked hands ; the threads or elastic tentacles clung to 
his arm, causing the man to yell with agony. He was quickly 
brought on board, and ran about like a maniac, requiring 
several men to hold him. When secured, and the proper 
remedies applied, he rolled about for some time groaning 
with pain; his arm was red, inflamed, and swollen, and 
remained so for some hours. 

Its earliest modern name of " sea-nettle" is derived from 
that conferred upon this class of marine creatures by Aris- 
totle, in consequence of the burning sting caused by the 
poisonous tentacles or feelers of several members of this 



THE AMMONITE. 203 

group ; a sting which leaves after it a white piinplo, like 
that caused by a nettle. 

A remarkable interest is attached to the nautilus from 
the very remote periods of time to Avhich it can be traced ; 
fossils being found in the most ancient rocks in which shell 
animals have been discovered, in various parts of the world, 
living ages before the Flood in temperate and tropical seas. 
In the London clay, which forms such a large extent of the 
substratum of the great metropolis, lie buried vast numbers 
of the pearly shells of the nautilus, which, evidently at a 
great distance of time, found in that country a congenial 
climate and home. The largest British specimens of the fos- 
sil nautilus occur in the carboniferous limestone, and speci- 
mens of these are preserved in the British Museum more 
than a yard in length, and thick in proportion. 

In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 
London, is a specimen of the entire animal, soft parts and 
shell, of the pearly nautilus: a portion of the shell has been 
removed to show some of the chambers, and the membranous 
tube or syphon which traverses them. There is also a 
specimen of the paper nautilus suspended as when floating, 
with the expanded membranous arms in their natural posi- 
tion spread over the shell which they form and repair. 

Resembling somewhat in appearance the nautilus, the 
shell being chambered and spiral, but differing otherwise in 
some respects, was the primitive navigator of the ancient 
seas, the ammonite, of which the shells now only remain, the 
most beautiful of all our fossils, and found in almost every 
country in the world, upwards of two hundred species hav- 
ing been described. The name is derived from a fancied 
resemblance of its shell to the ram's horn ornaments on 
sculptured heads of Jupiter Ammon. They are of very 
different sizes, varjnng to even three or four feet in diameter. 
The larger ones were formerly taken for petrified snakes, 
and were found in great numbers at Whitby in Yorkshire. 



204 FLOATING SHELLS. 

Sir Walter Scott alludes to this popular superstition in his 
poem of "Marmion," where the nuns of Whitby exultingly 

told 

" How of thousand snakes, eacli one 
Was clianged into a coil of stone 
When holy Hilda pray'd." 

The visitors to Whitby are still invited to buy a pet- 
rified snake, and to add to their natural appearance, the 
mouth of the ammonite is carved into a head, and eyes are 
introduced made of colored glass. 

. The ammonite, with a shell a yard across, would have been 
an animal large in proportion to its body-chamber, and 
requiring a certain amount of water to be displaced by its 
shell, to move at ease along the bottom of the sea in search 
of its food. The shell of the ammonite,thoughof the same flat 
character as that of the nautilus, appears to have been much 
thinner ; but, to compensate for this, there were flutings 
which are seen in the surface, occasioned by the transverse 
ribs. The round knobs or bosses studding some of the am- 
monites were like gems on a diadem, adding strength as 
well as beauty to their form. The whorls or wreaths of the 
shell were rounder and more in number than that of the 
nautilus, and the tubes — the hydraulic instinct by which the 
chambers were supplied with air, or exhausted, for the as- 
cent or descent of the animal — instead of running through 
the cells like that of the nautilus, went round the chambers 
of the ammonite. 

How strange are the vicissitudes of all created things ! 
While some survive the shocks and rents of time, others are 
known only as fossil memorials of the primitive world. The 
nautilus still rides on the crest of the ocean waves, but the 
ammonite — long, long since removed from the element in 
which it lived — only remains as a petrifaction to tell of its 
existence in ages before the Flood. 

We also mention the little floating Pteroj)oda or Wing- 




GIGANTIC CUTTLE FISH. 



206 CUTTLE FISH. 

sliells, the inhabitants of which pass their entire life in the 
sea far away from any shelter except that afforded by the 
floating Gulf-weed, and whose organization is peculi- 
ary adapted to that sphere of existence. In appearance 
they strikingly resemble the fry of the ordinary sea-snails, 
swimming, like them, by the vigorous flapping of a pair of 
fins. To the naturalist on shore they are almost unknown, 
but the voyager on the great ocean meets them where 
there is little else to arrest his attention, and marvels at 
their delicate forms and almost incredible numbers. They 
swarm in the tropical, and no less the Arctic seas, where by 
their myriads, the water is discolored by them for leagues. 
They are seen swimming on the surface in the heat of the 
day, as well as in the cool of the evening. In high latitudes 
they are the principal food of the whale and of many sea- 
birds. 

Another floating inhabitant of the deep is described as the 
beautiful lantliina or Ocean-Snail, which is quite blind, and 
has large horny jaws, furnished with sharp, curved, slender 
teeth. This animal is remarkable for floating shell down- 
wards in the water, and the anterior part of the foot forms 
a shallow cup, which embraces the smooth anterior rounded 
part of the float. Thus the fish can raise or lower itself in 
the water at pleasure. When it wishes to bring its head to 
the surface of the water, this part of the foot is made to 
glide over the back of the float. The floats are made of a 
raucous film containing air ; and Avhen cut Avith scissors, the 
animal descended to the bottom of the vessel in which it 
was consigned, and did not make a new one. 

The nautili belong to a class called Cephalopoda, so 
named from the singular attachment of the feet to the head 
— locomotive organs employed as oars or feet when moving 
along the bottom of the sea, and consisting of a circlet of 
muscular arms or tentacles, in addition to which many of 
this class have fins. To this same definition of Linngeus 



CUTTLE FISH DESCRIBED. 907 

belong the Cuttle-fish, the bony scale on the back of whicli 
is employed for making pounce, tooth-powder, for polishing, 
and other purposes in the arts. 

The common cuttle-fish is abundant on the English coasts. 
Its skin is smooth, Avhitish, and dotted with red. It attains 
the length of a foot or more, and is one of the pests of the 
fishermen, devouring partially the fish which have been 
caught in their nets. The eggs of the cuttle-fish are 
frequently cast on shore clustered together. Singularly in- 
teresting is the study of these creatures, which are 
provided with means of escaping danger, in their ink-bags, 
from which they can at will emit a fluid, darkening the water 
and thus enabling them to get off. This natural ink of the 
fish is employed in painting ; Cicero tells us that it was 
anciently used for writing with. 

Another property possessed by this class of animals is, 
that if any of its tentacles or feelers are bitten off, which is 
often the case — the conger eel having a special relish for 
the dainty morsel — others supply their place, the power of 
reproduction being given to them. The whale also regales 
on the cuttle-fish, and the plaice tribe have the same 
partiality. The most common species form the bait with 
which one-half of the cod taken at Newfoundland are 
caught. 

The general description of the cuttle-fish may be thus 
described: the body oblong, or longer than broad, and 
depressed, sac-like, with two narrow lateral fins of similar 
substance with the mantle (the outside skin of shell-fish, 
which covers a great part of the body, like a cloak). There 
is an internal shell lodged in a sac on the back part of the 
mantle, somewhat oval and bladed-shaped, being compar- 
atively thick near the anterior end, where it is terminated 
by a sharp point, affixed, as it were, to its general outline. 
The whole shell is light and porous, and is formed of thin 
plates, with intervening soaces, divided by innumerable 



208 STORIES RESPECTING THE GUTTLE FISH. 

partitions, and consists chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a 
little gelatinous and other animal matter, which is most 
abundant in the internal harder part of the shell. The eyes 
are very large, and the head is furnished with eight arms, 
each of which has four rows of suckers and two long tenta- 
cles, expanded and furnished with suckers on one side at the 
extremity. Cuttle-fish are enabled to leap out of the water 
by the sudden extension, not of their tails, but of their nu- 
merous arms, or other processes from their bodies. 

In hot climates some of the species of cuttle-fish grow to 
a prodigious size, and are furnished with a fearful apparatus 
of arms with suckers, by which they can rigidly fasten upon 
and convey their prey to the mouth. In the eight-armed 
species which inhabit the Indian seas these tentacles are 
said to be no less than nine fathoms in length. 

Extraordinary stories have been related of these animals. 
Pliny mentions the head of one which was as large as a cask, 
the arms thirty-six feet long. They are described as first 
darting from side to side in the pools, and fixing themselves 
so tenaciously to the surface of the stones that great force 
was required to remove them. When thrown upon the 
sand, they progressed rapidly in a sidelong shufiling man- 
ner, throwing about their long arms, ejecting their inky 
fluid in sudden violent jets, and staring about with their 
shining eyes in a grotesque and hideous manner. As food 
it was highly prized by the ancients, and is still much 
esteemed in some parts of the world. It is regularly 
exposed for sale in the markets at Naples, Smyrna, and in 
the bazaars of India. In a curious Japanese book there is 
a picture of a man in a boat engaged in catching cuttle-fishes 
with a spear; and also a fishmonger's shop in Japan, where 
a number of enormous cuttle-fishes are represented hanging 
up for sale. 

Columbus describes the mode of fishing with the cuttle- 
fish pursued in his time by the natives of Santa Marta : 



FISHIHG WITH THE CUTTLE FISH. 209 

" They had a small fish, the flat head of which was 
furnished with numerous suckers, by which it attached it- 
self so firmly to any object as to be torn in pieces rather than 
abandon its hold. Tying a line of great length to the tail of 
this fish, the Indians permitted it to swim at large. It 
generally kept near the surface of the water until it per- 
ceived its prey, when, darting down swiftly, it attached 
itself by its suckers to the throat of a fish, or to the under 
shell of a tortoise, nor did it relinquish its prey until both 
were drawn up by the fisherman, and taken out of the 
water." 

In this way the Spaniards witnessed the taking of a 
tortoise of immense size, and Fernando Columbus himself 
afiirms that he saw a shark caught in this manner on the 
coast of Veragua. 

This account, strange as it may seem, has been corrob- 
orated by various navigators, and the same mode of fishing 
is said to be employed on the eastern coast of Africa, at 
Mozambique, and at Madagascar. 

The South Sea Islanders have a curious contrivance for 
taking the cuttle-fish, which resort to the holes of the coral 
rocks, and protrude their arms or tentacles for the bait, but 
remain themselves firm within the retreat. The instrument 
employed for taking them consists of a straight piece of hard 
wood, a foot long, round and polished, and not half an inch 
in diameter. Near one end of this a number of the most 
beautiful pieces of the cowry or tiger-shell are fastened, one 
over the other, like the scales of a fish or the plates of a 
piece of armour, until it is about the size of a turkey's Qg^^ 
and resemble the cowry. It ia suspended in an horizontal 
position by a strong line, and is lowered by the fisherman 
from a small canoe until it nearly reaches the bottom. The 
fisherman then gently jerks the line, causing the shell to 
move as if it were inhabited by a fish. The cuttle-fish, 
attracted, it is supposed, by the appearance of the cowry 



210 BELONGED TO A PERIOD BEFORE THE FLOOD. 

(for no bait is used), darts out one of its arms, which it 
winds round the shell and fastens among the openings 
between the plates. The fisherman continues jerking the 
line, and the fish puts out successively its other arms until 
it has fastened itself to the shells, when it is drawn up into 
the canoe and secured. 








"" 'til'*" ^^ 




■^"=5*^ 



\ - 



DEVIL FISH. 



In conclusion, we will mention that the cuttle-fish belongs 
to a period before the Flood, like the nautili ; their undi- 
gested fossil remains are frequently noticed within the ribs 
of the Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri in the limestone rocks, 
showing that then, as in the present day, to eat and to be 
eaten was the general law of nature. 



CHAPTER XV. 




MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

" A thousand names a fisher might rehearse 
Of nets intractable in smoother verse." — Oppian. 

iTHE space devoted to this subject here must 
of necessity be brief. It Avill therefore be 
understood by the reader that many impor- 
tant and interesting details will have to 
be omitted. Though, as announced by the 
heading of this chapter, it is proposed to 
consider the manner of catching fish ; this cannot be done 
without treating to some extent of the fish themselves, and 
tlie implements employed. This at once opens up a subject 
so extensive and varied, and withal so desirable to know 
and enjoy, that we have been somewhat embarrassed as to 
just what it would be desirable to omit in the list of de- 
scription. 

It will be noticed that the American fisheries have not 
been given the importance here that their magnitude would 
seem to demand. Of course, this omission has been pur- 
posely, and we believe the reader will decide, before he has 
finished reading this chapter, wisely made. In the first 
place, it is not proposed to present a compendium of dry, 
and, to some extent, uninteresting facts ; and, secondly, we 
have deemed it best not to cumber these pages with descrip- 
tions of what many of our readers daily see and are therefore 
familiar with. On the contrary, we have in our illustrations 
compared primitive modes of fishing in foreign latitudes, 



212 USE OF NETS FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS 

with the more modern appliances, and, to some extent, 
European methods with our own. By this plan our matter 
must certainly be more picturesque, vivid, and interesting. 

The use of nets for entrapping the finny inhabitants of the 
deep date from the earliest periods. Besides the frequent 
mention of them in the Holy Scriptures, we find illustrations 
in the bas-reliefs of Assyria, Greece, and Rome, and in the 
mural or wall paintings of Egypt. The latter nation 
delighted in fishing, and, not contented vfith. the abundance 
afforded by the Nile, they constructed in their grounds 
spacious sluices or ponds for fish, like the vivaria of the 
Eomans, where they fed them for the table, and amused 
themselves by angling. The fishermen, who composed one 
of the sub-divisions of the Egyptian castes, generally used 
the net in preference to the line. The ancients entertained 
a number of prejudices relative to the wholesomeness or 
injurious qualities of certain fish. The priests in Egypt 
were prohibited from eating fish of any kind. For fear 
of leprosy, the people also were forbidden the use of any 
fish not covered with scales. Moses adopted the same prin- 
ciples with the Jews : *' Whatever hath fin or scales in the 
water in the seas, them shalt thou eat; whatever hath no 
fins or scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination to 
you." 

The G-reeks and Romans used nets ; trawling at sea was 
also a favorite mode of angling, and harpoons were in gen- 
eral use, by means of which many large fish were secured. 
Some mosaics discovered at Palestrina represented men 
engaged in taking fish out of a ready decoy by means of 
small hand-nets. Arrian, in his '* Indian History," mentions 
a people on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, who had nets 
capable of covering a quarter of a mile of sea, not made of 
twine, for hemp and flax were unknown in the land, but of 
the inner bark of palm trees, being, in fact, papyrus nets. 

In the dialogues composed by Elfric to instruct the Saxon 



VARIOUS DE8VRIPTI0N8 OF NETS. 213 

youths in the Latin hmguage, which are yet preserved in 
tlie Cottoniau manuscripts, a fisherman is asked how he 
secures liis prey, and he answers, " I ascend my ship and 
cast my net into the river; I also throw in a hook, a bait, 
and a rod ;" which shows that in the earliest periods of the 
history of that country, nets of various kinds were emplo3"ed 
for entrapping fish; indeed, although St. Wilfred is said to 
have taught the people of Sussex the use of the net 
(probably an improved kind), such means have been em- 
ployed in different ways from remotest times. Until late 
years fishing nets have always been made by hand, and 
generally the thread has been a more or less thick twine of 
hemp, or flax, the thickness of the twine and the size of the 
mesh depending upon the kind of fish for which it was made ; 
recently, however, great improvements have been made in 
the manufacture of nets, and machinery of the most beautiful 
minute kind has been invented for the purpose. 

A great variety of nets are in use among fishermen, but the 
principal are the seine, trawl, and drift nets. The first is a 
very long but not very wide net, one side of which is loaded 
with pieces of lead, and consequently sinks; the other, 
or upper, is buoyed with pieces of cork, and is consequently 
kept on the surface of the water. Seines are sometimes 
upwards of a thousand feet in length. When stretched out 
they constitute walls of network in the water, and are made 
to enclose vast shoals of fish. The trawl is dragged along 
the bottom of the sea by the fishing-boat ; and the drift-net 
is like the seine, but is not loaded with lead, and is usually 
employed for mackerel fishing. In the two fishery exhibi- 
tions at Arcachon and Boulogne in France, several years 
ago, a number of curious implements for the capture of the 
inhabitants of the deep were shown. In one corner were 
curious tongs for taking eels. Long stretches of netting for 
the sardine fishery, woven with thread so fine that it might 
be used for the manufacture of ladies' hose, were festooned 



214 FIBEINQ BY THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 

over a division of the buildings. At another place was a 
leech-lifter, and near it were deadly traps for taking crabs 
and lobsters. From the roofs hung stretches of Scotch-made 
herring-nets, by far the best of their kind ; and with such a 
wall of meshes floating in the sea as these nets present to 
the fish, each stretch being about a mile long, and with 
a fleet of a few hundred boats nightly centered on some well 
known fishing-ground, the wonder is, not that fishes are 
scarce and dear, but that a single herring could escape. 

In 1864 an attempt was first made to fish by the electric 
light at Dunkirk, on the coast of France. A magneto-elec- 
tric machine was afterwards employed. The light was 
constant at one hundred and eighty feet under water, and 
it extended over a large surface. As soon as the submarine 
lantern was immersed, shoals of fish of every description 
came to sport in the illuminated circle, while the fishermen 
outside of it spread their nets from the boats.- The light 
illuminating the deep sea, the fish arriving in shoals, at- 
tracted by the fictitious sun, the boats at the edge of the 
lighted circle, the deep silence interrupted only by the 
grating of the electro-magnetic machine, formed altogether 
an imposing sight. 

Before leaving this part of our subject, we may notice a 
curious invention stated in Rymer's *' Foedera," for which 
Charles I. granted a patent in 1632 to a physician, " for a 
fish-call or looking-glass for fishes in the sea, very useful for 
fishermen to call all kinds of fishes to their nets." 

A singular method of getting fish is that in which other 
animals are employed for the purpose. Birds are thus 
trained by the Chinese. Falcons are not more sagacious in 
the pursuit of their prey in the air than in another element. 
They are called alvoau, and are about the size of a goose, 
with gray plumage, webbed feet, and have a long and slen- 
der bill, crooked at the point. Their faculty of diving, or 
remaining under water, is not more extraordinary than that 



BIRDS TRAINED TO FISH. 215 

of many other fowls that prey upon fish, but the wonderful 
circumstance is the docility of these birds in employing their 
natural instinctive powers at the command of the fishermen 
who possess them, in the same manner as the hound, the 
spaniel, or the pointer submit their respective sagacity to 
the huntsman or the fowler. The number of these birds in 
a boat is proportioned to the size of it. At a certain signal 
they rush into the water and dive after the fish, and the 
moment they have seized their prey, they fly with it to their 
boat, and though there may be a hundred of these vessels 
together, the birds always return to their own masters; and 
amidst the crowd of fishing-junks which are sometimes 
assembled on these occasions, they never fail to distinguish 
that to which they belong. When the fish are in great 
plenty, these astonishing purveyors will soon fill a boat with 
them, and will sometimes be seen flying along with a fish of 
such size as to make the beholder suspect his organs of 
vision ; and such is their sagacity that when one of them hap- 
pens to have taken a fish which is too large for a single fal- 
con, the rest immediately lend their assistance. While they 
are thus laboring for their masters, they are prevented from 
paying any attention to themselves by a ring which is passed 
round their necks, and is so contrived as to frustrate every 
attempt to swallow the least morsel of what they take. 
They eat thankfully what is afterwards given them in 
reward. One of the old domestic sports of the Earls of 
Monteith, in their island home of Talla, was fishing with 
geese. A line with a baited hook was tied to the leg of a 
goose, Avhich was made to swim in water of proper depth. 
A boat well filled escorted this formidable knight-errant. A 
marauding fish would take hold of the bait, and put his 
mettle to the test. A combat ensued, in which, by the dis- 
play of both contending heroes of much strength and agility 
the goose always came off victorious, and would drag his 
prisoner to the boat in triumpli. 



216 CLEVER TBIGK8 OF THE CHINESE FISHERMEN. 

No nation on the earth puts in practice a greater variety 
of modes for catcliing fish than the Chinese. One method 
is to nail on each side of long narrow boats a plank two feet 
broad, covered with white shining japan, and placed by a 
gentle inclination so that its lower edge just touches the 
surface of the water. This device is used at night, with the 
intent that the reflection of the moon should increase its de- 
ceptive influence ; and whether the fish which are sporting 
around are dazzled by the splendor, or merely mistake the 
lustrous plank for the sparkling water, it is impossible to 
say, but in their moonlight gambols great numbers either 
fall on the plank and are secured, or fairly vault into the 
body of the boat. 

In some places the Chinese soldiers have acquired the 
dextrous art of shooting fish with bows and arrows. To the 
arrow a long piece of packthread is attached, by means of 
which, when the fish is pierced, it is drawn to hand. In 
other places the muddy bottom is so replenished with the 
finny tribes, that men standing up to the waist in the water 
strike them with sticks. Besides these various devices, 
another is in general use, and consists in stretching' out a 
net on four pieces of bamboo suspended by a long pole. 

The South Sea islanders are expert fishermen, and their 
methods for the capture of the finny tribe are numerous, 
and some very ingenious. They have a singular mode of 
taking a remarkably timorous fish, which is called the needle, 
on account of its long, sharp head. A number of rafts are 
built, each about fifteen or twenty feet long, and six or eight 
wide. At one edge a kind of fence or*screen is raised four 
or five feet by fixing the poles horizontally one above the 
other, and fastening them to upright sticks placed at short 
distances along the raft. The men on the raft go out at a 
distance from each other, enclosing a large space of water, 
having the raised part or frame on the outside. They 
gradually approach each other till the rafts join, and form a 



MODE OF FISHING OF SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. iilT 

connected circle in some shallow. One or two persons then 
go in a small canoe towards the centre of the enclosed space, 
with long white sticks, which they strike in the water with 
a great noise, and by this means drive the fish towards the 
rafts. On approaching these the fish dart out of the water, 
and in attempting to spring over the raft, strike against the 
raised fence on the outer side, and fall on the surface of the 
horizontal part, when they are gathered into baskets or 
canoes on the outside. In this manner great numbers ot 
these and other kinds offish, that are accustomed to spring 
out of the water when alarmed or pursued, are taken with 
facility. Fishing-nets are remarkably well made, and those 
for casting are used with great dexterity, generally as the 
islanders walk along the beach. When a shoal of small fish 
appear, they throw the net with the right hand, and some- 
times enclose the greater part of them. 

Next to the net the spear is most frequently used. This 
is darted at the fish, sometimes with one hand, but more 
frequently with both, and very successfully. When fishing 
on the reefs, they wear a kind of sandal made of closely- 
netted cords of the cloth plant, to preserve their feet from 
the edges of the shells, the spikes of the sea-urchins, etc. 

It would be interesting to gaze upon a group of fishermen 
standing on a coral reef or rock, amidst the roar of the 
billows, and the dashing surf and foam that broke in mag- 
nificent splendor around them. With unwavering glance 
they have stood, with a little basket in one hand and a 
pointed spear in the other, striking with unerring aim such 
fish as the violence of the wave might force within their 
reach. 

The shell, or shell and bone hooks, are curious and use- 
ful, answering the purpose of hook and bait, the small ones 
being made circular, and bent so as to resemble a worm ; 
but the most common one is that used in catching dolphins, 
albicores, and bonitos. The shank of the hook is made with 



218 INGENIOUS ARTS IN FISHING. 

a piece of the mother-of-pearl shell, five or six inches long 
and three-quarters of an inch wide, carefully cut and finel)'' 
polished, so as to resemble the body of a fish. A barb is 
fastened by a firm bandage of finely twisted flax ; to tJie 
lower part of this the end of the line is securely fastened. 
When taken out to sea, the line is attached to a strong bam- 
boo cane about twelve or fifteen feet long. When a shoal 
of fish is seen, the natives who angle, sit in the stern of the 
canoe, and hold the rod at such an elevation as to allow the 
hook to touch the edge of the water, but not to sink. When 
the fish approach it, the rowers ply their paddles briskly, 
and the light bark moves rapidly along. The deception of 
the hook is increased by a number of hairs or bristles being 
attached to the end of the shell, so as to resemble the tail of 
a flying-fish. The victims, darting after and grasping their 
prey, are at once secured. During the season two men will 
sometimes take twenty or thirty large fish in this way in the 
course of the forenoon. 

The most ingenious method, however, of taking these 
large fish is by means of a mast. A pair of ordinary-sized 
canoes is usually selected for this purpose, and the lighter 
and swifter the more suitable they are esteemed. Between 
the fore part of the canoes a broad, deep, oblong kind of 
basket is constructed with the stalks of a strong kind of fern, 
interwoven with tough fibers of a tree : this is to contain the 
fish that may be taken. To the fore part of the canoes a long 
curved pole is fastened, branching in opposite directions at 
the outer end ; the foot of this rests in a kind of socket fixed 
between the two canoes. From each of the projecting 
branches lines with pearl-shell hooks are suspended, so ad- 
justed as to be kept near the surface of the water. To that 
part of the pole which is divided into two branches strong 
ropes are attached; these extend to the stern of the canoe, 
where they are held by persons watching the seizure of the 
hook. The tira, or mast, projects a considerable distance 



TUh' CANDLE FISH. 219 

beyond the stern of the canoe, and bunches of feathers are 
fastened to its extremities. This is done to resemble the 
aquatic birds whic-h follow the course of a small fish. As it 
is supposed that the bonito follows the birds with as much 
ardor as it does the fishes, when the fishermen perceive the 
birds they proceed to the place, and usually find the fish. 
The undulation of the waves occasions the canoe to rise and 
sink as they proceed, and this produces a corresponding 
action in the hook suspended from the mast; and so com- 
plete is the deception that if the fish once perceives the 
pearl-shell hook, it seldom fails to dart after it, and if it 
misses the first time is almost sure to be caught the second. 
As soon as the fish is fast, the men in the canoe, by drawing 
the cord, hoist up the mast and drag in the fish, suspended 
as it were from a kind of crane. When the fish is removed, 
the crane is lowered, and as it projects over the canoe the 
rowers hasten after the shoal with the greatest speed. 

These and a variety of other methods of fishing are pur- 
sued by daylight, but many fish are taken by night. Some- 
times the fishery is carried on by moonlight, occasionally in 
the dark; but fishing by torchlight is the most picturesque. 
The torches are bunches of dried reeds firmly tied together. 
Sometimes the natives pursue their nocturnal sport on the 
reef, and hunt the hedge-hog-fish. Large parties often go 
out to the reef and it is a beautiful sight to see a long line 
of rocks illuminated by the flaring torches. These the 
fishermen hold in one hand, and stand with the poised spear 
in the other, ready to strike as soon as the fish appears. 

The Indians on the coasts of the Pacific have also a singu- 
lar mode of taking the Candle-fish, or Eulachon, a most valu- 
able acquisition to their domestic comforts. Immense shoals 
approach the shores in summer, and are caught in moonlight 
nights, when they come to sport on the surface of the water, 
which may often be seen glittering with their multitudes. 
The Indians paddle their canoes noiselessly amongst them, 




THE GLOBE FISH. 




HALIBUT. 



THE WHITE PORPOISE. 221 

and catch them by means of a monster comb or rake — a 
piece of pine-wood from six to eight feet long, made round 
for about two feet of its length at the place of the hand- 
gripe, the rest flat, thick at the back, but having a sharp 
edge at the front, where teeth are driven into it, about four 
inches long and an inch apart. One Indian, sitting in the 
stern, paddles the canoe ; another, standing with his face to 
the bow, holds the rake firmly in both hands, the teeth 
pointing sternwards, sweeps it with all his force through the 
glittering mass, and brings it to the surface teeth upwards, 
usually with a fish, and sometimes with three or four, im- 
paled on each tooth. This process is carried on with wonderful 
rapidity. This fish, although not larger than a smelt, enjoys 
the distinction of being probably the fattest of all animals, 
comparatively speaking : to boil or fry it is impossible, as it 
melts entirely into oil. Even in a dried state the Indians 
use it as a lamp, merely drawing through it a piece of rush 
pith as a wick, and the fish then burns steadily until con- 
sumed. By a peculiar mode of preparation, these fishes are 
preserved as a winter food, and notwithstanding their great 
fatness, they are said to be of an agreeable flavor. Drying 
is accomplished Avithout any cleaning, the fish being fastened 
on skewers passed through their eyes, and hung in the thick 
smoke at the top of sheds in which Avood fires are kept burn- 
ing. They are then stowed away for winter. 

We will now glance at the White Porpoise fishing in the 
St. Lawrence River. The animal mentioned is a species of 
whale, and is chiefly common in those quarters, being valu- 
able for its oil, which gives a brilliant light only surpassed 
by gas, and its skin, which is manufactured into leather 
which has no equal for quality. The fish was formerly taken 
in enclosures made of light and flexible poles fixed in the 
beach, within which the porpoise pursued the small mem- 
bers of the finny tribe during high tide, and Avhere, its 
appetite once satisfied, it became heavy and almost asleep 



222 MODE OF TAKING WHITE PORPOISE. 

from gluttony, and seemed to forget for .several hours the 
dangers that surrounded it as the tide went out. The 
fishermen, silent, and on the look-out on the cliff, having seen 
that the waves had retreated, give the signal: two or three 
light skiffs (either bark or wooden canoes), manned by three 
or four expert rowers, appear upon the waves, wdiich they 
scarcely touch with their oars. Standing in the bow of each 
of these canoes, a man with bare and muscular arm, a steel 
spear in his hand, intently follows with his eye the track of 
the fish, indicating the course to be taken, Avhether to the 
right or left, and strikes the mortal blows. Often after one 
of these vigorous strokes, which are enough to kill the 
largest porpoise, the spearsman may be seen, when he does 
not strike aright, urging on the pursuit for a new contest 
of speed between his skiff and the wounded animal : some- 
times the blood which reddens the surface of the water 
indicates the course to be followed, and sometimes the sound 
of the subdued breathing of the porpoise, which comes to the 
surface of the water to breathe, throwing up a stream which 
descends in the form of a curve. The porpoise might break 
through this fence of flexible poles, eighteen or twenty 
inches apart, but it is afraid, and it returns by the way it 
came : a new stroke is given, but it is by a harpoon Avhich 
has a rope attached to it. The struggle becomes more in- 
tense and exciting. The paddle at the stern of the frail 
skiff is alone put in requisition. It is now the boatman's 
turn to display his skill The animal leaps out of the water, 
stops, dives, and turns about in every way; a white foam 
rises on each side of the boat, and its progress, hitherto so 
swift, is suddenly stopped; the animal is fatigued by its 
w^ound, wants to breathe, but fear keeps it below the water, 
and immediately the man in the bow rolls up at his knee 
the line which he had allowed to run out, and the boat is 
brought silently forward towards the victim. Again he stands 
up and with one hand brandishes the spear, while with the 



PORPOISE SERVED AT ROYAL TABLES. 223 

other he suddenly pulls the rope, inflicting fresh wounds: 
the fish once more leaps, but this time is the last, for a vigor- 
ous blow aimed at the spine between the head and the 
neck is fatal. 

Another plan is to use nets for entrapping the porpoise. 
The weight of one of these fishes is about two thousand 
five hundred pounds : the largest are sometimes four thou- 
sand pounds, and these are about twenty-two feet long and 
fifteen in circumference. 

We may remark here that the flesh of the common por- 
poise was formerly much esteemed in England, and was 
reckoned fit for the royal table. Among the singular direc- 
tions for the management of the household of King Henry 
VIII. , we find among the dainty dishes to be *' set before the 
king" a porpoise, " and if too big for a horse-load, an extra 
allowance to be given to the purveyor." In the time of 
Queen Elizabeth it was still used by the nobles of England, 
and was served up with bread-crumbs and vinegar. 

A curious mode of fishing the Gar-fish or Sea-Pike, in 
the Ionian Islands, is mentioned by a tourist. A small tri- 
angular raft is formed of three pieces of bamboo, each a foot 
and a half long ; a little thwart is inserted, in which a small 
mast is fixed ; it is then rigged with a sail, etc., in imitation 
of the boats of the country. The fisherman, taking his 
station on a projecting rock, with deep water alongside, and 
an off-shore breeze, commits his little raft to the wind, car- 
rying with it a line of about two hundred feet in length. A 
float is fixed at about every six feet, and from each float de- 
pends a fine hair-line with a baited hook. When the fish 
bites it draws the bait down violently once, and then seems 
to resign itself to death. The fisherman waits till ten or 
twelve are hooked ; he then hauls in his raft, relieves it of 
its freight, and again launches it for another cruise. Fifty 
or sixty are sometimes caught in this way during half an 
hour. 



224: CAPTURING THE TUNNY. 

The gar-fish is not uncommon on English coasts, and is 
abundant in the Baltic. It attains a length of two or three 
feet. The upper parts of the body are of a dark greenish- 
blue mackerel tint, and a curious circumstance is that its 
bones are green. It has been noticed that when this fish is 
taken by the hook, it mounts to the surface often before the 
fishermen have felt the bite, and there, with its slender 
body half out of the water, struggles with the most violent 
contortions to wrench the hook from its hold. 

In various chapters of this book we have already men- 
tioned the mode of capturing the large inhabitants of the 
deep — the whale, the seal, the shark, sea-unicorn, and oth- 
ers. We must not omit another important fish of large di- 
mensions, the Tunny, sometimes nine feet in length and up- 
wards of a thousand pounds in weight, and belonging to the 
Mackerel family. This fish is found in the Mediterranean 
and the Atlantic Ocean, but chiefly in the former, where this 
particular fishery is of great importance, and constitutes 
one of the greatest branches of Sicilian commerce. The 
fish appear at the latter end of May, at which time the ton- 
naire, as they are called, are prepared for their reception. 
This is a kind of aquatic castle, formed, at a considerable 
expense, of strong nets fastened to the bottom of the sea 
by anchors and heavy-laden weights. The tonnaires are 
fixed in the passages amongst the rocks and islands that are 
most frequented by the tunny-fish. Care is taken to close 
with nets the entrance into these passages, except one small 
opening, which is called the " outer gate." This leads into 
the next compartment, which we may term the " hall." As 
soon as the fishes have entered here, the fishermen who 
stand sentries in their boats during the season shut the 
outer entrance, which is done by letting down a small piece 
of net, portcullis-fashion, which effectually prevents the 
tunnies from returning by the way they came. The inner 
door of the " hall " is then opened, which leads to another 



THE STURGEON. 225 

compartment, and by making a noise on the surface of the 
water the tunnies are soon driven into it. As soon as the 
Avhole have been got into this compartment, the inner door 
of the '"hall" is again ch)sed, and tlie outer entrance is 
opened to receive more fishes. Tliis hist compartment of 
network is called the " chamber of death." This is com- 
posed of stronger nets and heavier anchors than the others. 

As soon as a sufficient number of tunny-fish has been col- 
lected here, the slaughter begins. The fishermen attack 
the poor defenceless animals on all sides, who dash the 
water about in their efforts to escape, but are at length sub- 
dued, and yield themselves a prey to their conquerors. 

" There is something," says a witness of this fish massa- 
cre, " extremely exciting in seeing the wholesale capture of 
a herd of these great black fish, intermixed, as they gener- 
ally are, with the forms of many of their large congeners, 
and occasionally Avith a sword-fish or a dolphin besides ; and 
no one ever left the spot after one of these enormous hauls 
without feeling that, however superior the whale fishery 
may be in enterprise, it cannot ^neld its votaries half the 
pleasures or charms of these scenes." 

A very questionable kind of pleasure, however, we think 
it must be to many, to see the agonies and the butchery 
which must necessarily take place on these occasions. 

The Sturgeon fishery is carried on to a very considerable 
extent in the Russian dominions on the coasts of the Caspian 
and Aral Seas. They are caught in an enclosure formed by 
large stakes, representing the letter Z repeated several 
times. These fisheries are open on the side nearest the sea, 
and closed on the other, by which means the fish, ascending 
in its season up the rivers, are caught in these narrow an- 
gular retreats, and are easily killed. The Hon. Captain 
Keppell, describing the method of catching sturgeon in the 
fishery of Karmaizack, says: 

'' Two persons are in each boat ; one (generally a female) 



226 THE STURGEON A ROTAL FISH. 

rows, while the other hauls in the fish. The instruments 
used consist of a mallet and a stick, with a large unbarbed 
hook at the end. Every fisherman has a certain number of 
lines. One line contains fifty hooks ; these are placed at 
regular distances from each other ; they are without barbs, 
sunk about a foot under water, and are kept in motion by 
small pieces of wood attached to them. The sturgeon gen- 
erally swims in a large shoal near the surface of the water, 
and upon being caught by one hook, he generall}^ gets en- 
tangled with one or two others in his struggles to escape. 
Immediately on our arrival the boats pulled from shore. 
Each fisherman proceeded to take up his lines. On coming 
to a fish he drew it with his hooked stick to the side of the 
boat, hit it a violent blow on the head with the mallet, and, 
after disengaging it from the other hooks, hauled it into the 
boat. On every side the tremendous splashing of the water 
announced the capture of some huge inhabitant of the 
deep." 

The sturgeon belongs to a numerous species inhabiting 
both sea and fresh water — those of the former, and the 
largest kind, being especially plentiful in the Caspian and 
Black Seas, where they attain a length of from twenty to 
twenty-five feet, and have been known to weigh nearly three 
thousand pounds. The flesh has the appearance and con- 
sistency of veal, and was highly esteemed by the ancients. 
Pliny states that it Avas brought to table with much pomp, 
and ornamented with flowers, the slaves who carried it be- 
ing also decorated with garlands and accompanied with 
music. 

. In England, when caught in the Thames and within ju- 
risdiction of the city, it is reserved for the Sovereign as a 
" royal fish." In the Illustrated London News for the 15th 
of April, 1860, is a notice of a fine sturgeon thus taken, and 
forwarded to the Queen at Windsor by order of the con- 
servators of the river. 



DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEA CONGERS AND EELS. 227 

The famous caviare of the Russians is made from the roc 
of the sturgeon, freed from its membranes, washed in vine- 
gar, and dried in the open air. It is then salted, put into 
a bag and pressed, and finally packed in small barrels for 
sale. 

The principal fishery of the Conger Eel in England is 
upon the Cornish coast. They are chiefly caught by what 
are termed "bulters," which are strong lines, several hun- 
dred feet long, with hooks about eight feet apart, baited 
with sand-launces, pilchards, or mackerel. Tlie bulters are 
sunk to the ground by a stone fastened to them. Sometimes 
such a number of these are tied together as to reach to a 
considerable distance. It is not unusual for a boat with 
three men to bring on shore from one to two tons as the 
produce of a night's fishing, the conger being caught most 
readily at night. 

On some of the French coasts the conger fishery is still 
more abundant than in Cornwall. 

Tlie great sea-conger has so great a resemblance to the 
common eel, the inhabitant of our rivers and ponds, that 
many persons believed the former was merely an eel of 
larger growth; but the difference may be readily discerned. 
The conger, whether large or small, has always the snout 
and upper jaw projecting beyond the lower one; whilst the 
fresh-water eel is remarkable for its protuberant lower jaw. 
The tail is also more lengthened and pointed, the dorsal fin 
commencing much nearer the head, and the teeth of the 
upper jaw, although slender, placed so close together as to 
form a cutting edge. The internal structure of these fishes 
differs more widely, the conger having a great many more 
bones than the eel, particularly towards the tail, and in pos- 
sessing a greater number of vertebrte (the spine or back- 
bone). 

The common conger of the Atlantic coasts is a large fish, 
sometimes exceeding ten feet in length, and weighing up- 



228 THE SAND EEL FISHERY. 

wards of a hundred pounds, but its ordinary dimensions are 
from five to seven feet. It is entirely a marine species, al- 
though frequently found in the mouths of rivers, its object 
being, it is thought, that of feeding on the fish that ascend 
or descend the stream. Of these it devours large quanti- 
ties, not objecting to crabs and shell-fish, which the strength 
of its jaws permits it to masticate without difficulty. The 
smaller kinds of fish it swallows entire, and thus fortified by 
good nourishment, it becomes a formidable adversary when 
hauled into the boat by a fisherman's line, or found among 
the rocks, where it is sometimes left by the retiring tide. 

This does not seem to be a matter of complaint in our 
time. The conger, however formidable, also finds a danger- 
ous adversary in the spiny lobster of the Mediterranean 
Sea, which is said to enter into a fierce battle with the con- 
ger, and generally becomes the victor, from the superiority 
of its weapons of defence, the claws, which lacerate and 
wound the monstrous eel, proving the death summons. 

The conger, when properly cooked, has a most delicious 
flavor, but somehow or other there is a great antipathy to this 
fish, as being, probably, too much of the serpent form; but 
travelers in Cornwall find a conger-pie delicious, and those 
persons who have visited the Channel Islands will not 
easily forget the delicious soup that is made from this fish. 
Even as far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, there was 
a singular mode of curing congers in Cornwall, which was 
merely to slit them in half, and without any further prepa- 
ration to hang them up in a kind of shambles erected for 
that purpose ; such parts of them as were not gone, were 
considered fit for use, and exported to Spain and Portugal. 

The Sand-Eel fishery, although of a very primitive char- 
acter, being mostly carried on with spades, shovels, three- 
pronged forks, rakes, and in fact any implement of a raking 
character at hand, is very exciting and amusing. Large 
shoals are observed frequently swimming near the shore, 



THE MACKEREL. 229 

and it often happens that, instead of retiring with the ebb- 
ing tide, they dig into the sand, and remain tliere until the 
water covers tliem again. Advantage is taken of this, and 
hundreds of men, women, and children set to work with the 
readiest implements they can find, and the scene becomes 
very animated. When dug from the sand, the fish leap 
about with singular velocity, and the gathering of tbem af- 
fords a fine amusement to the younger parties, who are 
commonly tliemost numerous and eager in this pursuit. It 
is remarkable with what ease and rapidity these slender and 
delicate-looking fish penetrate the sand, even when it is of 
a pretty firm texture. They are a favorite meal with many, 
and are sometimes salted and dried; but their principal use 
is as bait for the capture of more valuable fishes, there be- 
ing scarcely any other found to answer the purpose so effec- 
tually. This well-known fish scarcely ever exceeds seven 
or eight inches. 

The Mackerel belongs to the same family as the tunny- 
fish previously described, but is a comparatively small mem- 
ber as regards size, being usually about fourteen inches long 
and about two pounds in weight. This beautiful fish is 
readily caught by bait, and particularly when the bait — 
which is usually a piece from one of its own kind — is moved 
quickly through the water. The boats engaged for this 
fishing are often under sail. Besides the line, drift-nets and 
seines are employed. The size of the mesh is one inch and 
one-sixth from knot to knot when the twine is wet, or in the 
square, from one corner to another. A row of corks runs 
along the head-line, and the lower border is left suspended 
by its own weight. The number of nets in each boat de- 
pends upon its size. A boat may carry eleven score of nets, 
and as these are fastened in length to each other, they will 
extend to a distance of a mile and three-quarters. The 
boats on the various fishing-grounds are shot across the 
course of the tide tAvice between evening and morning; for 



230 MODE OF CATCHING THE MACKEREL. 

fish avoid the nets during the day, and scarcely less so dur- 
ing very dark nights. This latter circumstance is caused 
by the light produced in the sea by luminous animals, which 
then appears most conspicuous; and hence a hazy atmos- 
phere is judged beneficial. The use of lights is employed 
in some countries. Bloch, in speaking of the mackerel fish- 
ery, says, that at St. Croix, on the approach of night, when 
the sea is smooth, they prepare their torches, and hold them 
as close to the water as possible. The fish soon show them- 
selves, and rise above the surface, when the nets are imme- 
diately shot, and soon taken in with abundant success. 

When the shoal of mackerel approaches the land the 
seine comes into operation. This consists of a single net, 
which is about seven hundred feet in length, and seventy in 
depth at the middle. The full size of the mesh from corner 
to corner is two and three-quarter inches at the sides, which 
is the same dimension allowed to the drift-net ; but for 
about two hundred feet of the hollow, the size of the mesh 
is lessened to two and a half inches, to prevent the fish 
from being hung in the meshes ; for if this should happen, 
the net would not be raised from the bottom, and fish and 
net would be lost. Shoals of mackerel are rapid in their 
motion, and exceedingly uncertain, as well as easily alarmed. 
They rarely stay long at the surface, and when they sink 
below it is doubtful in what direction the}^ may again ap- 
pear. The whole proceedings are, therefore, full of excite- 
ment, and great haste is employed to enclose them in the 
circle of the seine. 

The mackerel is a favorite article of food, but its flesh . 
soon changes; and a capture that might have proved valu- 
able, may be rendered worthless if the fishes are not at once 
sent to the market. A principal object of the French fishery 
is to prepare the mackerel salted for use at home, for which 
purpose they are immediately stored in bulk on board the 
boats. In the west of Cornwall, also considerable numbers 



THE HERRING FISHERY. 231 

are palted, chiefly for the use of miners, who seem to prefer 
salted fish to even the fresh that abound in the finest con- 
dition in their markets. 

It was formerly supposed that great migrations of mack- 
erel took place, but it is now believed, as in regard to the 
herring, that they merely leave the deep water and approach 
the coast for the purpose of spawning. The mackerel is of 
less importance than the herring fishery. It is a restless, 
ever-wandering rover, and unlike the herring in its habits 
in that respect. It is found in large numbers in the Medi- 
terranean. 

The Herring fishery affords one of the best illustrations 
of British enterprize. We must now proceed to the Nor- 
folk coast, for it is there that this most valuable fish is found 
in the greatest abundance, perhaps more so than in any other 
part of the world. The name of the fish is derived from the 
German Acer, "an army," in reference to the vast shoals in 
which they arrive. The herrings appear on the Norfolk 
coast in the last week of September for the purpose of 
spawning, and are then in the best condition to become the 
food of man. Having fulfilled this obligation of nature, they 
return to their former haunts about the commencement of 
December. A few, however, may be found at other periods 
of the year, particularly about midsummer; and, although 
small, they are much esteemed for their delicate flavor. 
The Yarmouth herring has less oil than the Scotch herring, 
but is unrivalled in point of quality. It seldom measures 
more than fourteen inches in length, in girth six inches and 
a half, and it weighs about nine ounces. The vessels em- 
ployed by Yarmouth in this fishery are usually decked boats, 
of from forty to fifty tons burthen, and carrying a crew of 
ten men. Besides the boats belonging to the town, there 
are many others called " cobles," which come from Scar- 
borough, Filey, and other northern ports. Each fishing- 
boat is provided with from sixty to one hundred nets, each 



232 THE ENORMOUS QUANTITY TAKEN. 

net about fifteen yards long upon the rope, fastened by small 
cords called "seizings." These nets are floated by corks 
placed at intervals of a few feet- from each other; the warp 
which supports the whole is frequently a mile in length, and 
is borne up by small buoys. The nets themselves are 
usually made in four parts or Avidths, called " lints," one be- 
ing placed above another, and so forming a wall in the sea, 
against which the fish are invited to drive their heads. 

This fishing is carried on during the night only, it being- 
supposed that the stretching of the nets in the daytime 
would drive away the shoal. In the dusk of the evening 
the nets are thrown over the side, and the boat is then 
steered under an easy sail, or allowed to drift with the tide 
until daylight, when the nets are hauled in. A single boat 
has sometimes, in one night, taken twelve or fourteen lasts 
of hearings, each " last" numbering ten thousand fish, or, by 
the fisherman's calculation, thirteen thousand two hundred; 
but it often happens that a boat does not obtain more than 
this quantity during the season. The average catch for each 
boat is about thirty " lasts" (three hundred thousand) ; but 
a boat has been known to bring in the enormous quantity 
of two hundred and sixty -four thousand herring at one time. 
Like all fisheries, the result is very uncertain. It is a curious 
and bountiful provision of nature that forces the herring, 
and other fish usually distributed through the deep, to congre- 
gate together, and visit the shores in such immense abun- 
dance, at a time ^vhen they are in the highest perfection, 
and when most fitted for human food. 

The herring dies as soon as it leaves the water, hence 
the phrase *' as dead as a herring." The fishes are therefore 
salted as soon as caught, and when the boat has reached 
land they are brought to shore, and carried to the fish-house 
in " SAvills," which are open coarse wicker baskets. Arrived 
at the fish "office," the herrings, after being sufficiently 
salted, remain on the floor for twenty-four hours if intended 




WANDERINfi CHAETODON. 




LUMP FISH. 



234 CURING HEBBINQ. 

to be slightly cured, or for ten days if intended for the 
foreign market; they are then washed in large vats filled 
with fresh water ; " spits," (pieces of wood about four feet 
long and of the thickness of a man's thumb) are passed 
through their heads or gills, and they are then hung up in 
rows to the top of the building. Wood fires are then kindled 
under them, and are continued day and night, M'ith slight 
intermissions to allow the fat and oil to drop, until the fish 
are sufficiently cured, which, if they are intended for the 
foreign market, is at the end of fourteen days, but if for 
home consumption, three or four days suffice. The first 
are called " red" herrings, from the deep color which they 
acquire, and the others are known as " bloaters." When 
cured, the herrings are taken down and placed in bar- 
rels which contain each about seven hundred fish. From 
thirty to forty thousand barrels are sent yearly from Yar- 
mouth to the towns on the Mediterranean coasts. The 
annual supply of herrings at Billingsgate Market is estimated 
at one hundred and twenty thousand tons, valued at one 
million two hundred pounds sterling! The greatest enemy 
to the herring fishermen is the dog-fish, which, in pursuit of 
the herring, frequently becomes entangled in the nets, and 
does great damage to them in endeavoring to escape. 

The herring fisheries sometimes suffer very considerably 
from the ravages of this fish, the popular name of some of 
the smaller species of shark, owing this designation to their 
habit of following their prey like dogs hunting in packs. 
These predaceous fishes are seldom abundant when the her- 
rings are in a compact body; but sometimes they commit 
great destruction when a shoal is first drawn in near land. 
They have been known to consume as many herrings as 
would fill a dozen barrels out of one boat's nets in the 
course of an hour. They are also very destructive to the 
nets when the}' get entangled, their hard fins tearing them 
to pieces. In like manner they make sad havoc with other 



THE DOG-FISH AND THE HAKE. 235 

fishes. Occasionally only a few escape with their heads, the 
tails of others are snapped off, and pieces bitten out of the 
belly. A cod-fish sometimes comes up a mere skeleton, 
stripped to the bone on both sides. 

The Dog-fish attains a length of three or four feet, and is 
found in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the South seas. 
One of the most abundant species on English coasts is the 
common dog-fish, which sometimes appears in prodigious 
numbers, twenty thousand having been taken at Cornwall 
at one time in a net, and the fishermen of the Orkneys and 
Hebrides, where they are much used for food, sometimes 
load their boats to the water's edge with them. 

Another voracious enemy of the herring (and the pil- 
chard) is the Hake, a member of the Cod family, with the 
same predatory instincts. It is sometimes three or four feet 
in length, coarse in quality, but valuable as a " stock" fish. 
It is generally taken by lines, like cod and ling, but in the 
spawning season, when it keeps near the bottom, it is some- 
times caught by trawl-nets. 

Allied to the herring, but difi'ering in some respects, 
being nearly equal in size, but rather thicker, and the lines 
of the back and belly being straighter, the scales also being 
larger and fewer, is the Pilchard, a fish also of immense im- 
portance in the British fisheries, and plentiful on the coasts 
of Devonshire and Cornwall. These fish congregate in deep 
waters, within limits extending from the Scilly Isles, as far, 
sometimes, as the Irish, Welsh and Cornish coasts. A por- 
tion strikes the land north of Cape Cornwall, and turns in a 
north-easterly direction toward St. Ives, constituting its 
summer fishery. The great bulk passes between the Scilly 
Islands and the mainland. " To look from Cape Cornwall," 
says an eye-witness, "or from any of the high lands of St. 
Just, and see this immense mass of fishes, extending as far 
as the eye can reach, approaching the shores and reddening 



236 THE ST. IVES PILCHARD FISHERY. 

the waters, is a sight of great interest and beauty, and such 
as would repay any exertion to see." 

The seine or net used in St. Ives Bay for capturing pil- 
chards ia nearly twelve hundred feet long, and nearly sixty 
feet in depth. More than two hundred and fifty of such 
nets are kept at St. Ives, each having its own boat to carry 
it. Every seine or net-boat, when its turn arrives, is attended 
by one or two tow-boats with stop-nets, and also by a smaller 
boat called the " follower," used principally for carrying the 
men to and from the larger boats. When the huers or sen- 
tinels stationed on the hills perceive a shoal of pilchards, 
they immediately signal to their respective boats, and by 
signs give the necessary directions for their capture. They 
are enabled to do this by observing on the water a reddish 
hue, like that of sea-weed (very different from their color 
out of water), and the denser the shoal of fish, the deeper 
is this hue. As soon as the seine-boat and tow-boat are 
within reach of the shoal, they start for the same point in 
opposite directions, and are rowed rapidly round the fish, 
while the nets which they carry are being shot or cast into 
the sea. When the seine and the stop-net meet, they are 
immediately joined, and form a complete circular wall round 
the pilchards about eighteen hundred feet in circumference, 
and reaching from the surface to the bottom, the nets being 
kept in a vertical position by corks strung on their head- 
ropes and leads on their foot-ropes. This net-work enclo- 
sure, with all its contents, is then warped towards the shore 
into the securest part of the bay, out of the reach of the 
strong tidal current, and there moored with anchors so 
placed as to keep it as open or as nearly circular as possi- 
ble. Within this large net a small one, called the tuck-net, 
is introduced at low water, so that the fish are raised to the 
surface, dipped up in baskets into the boats, taken to shore, 
and carried in barrows to be cured and salted. The St. Ives 
seine fishery does not differ materially from that in Mount's 



CURING THE PILCHARD. i>37 

Buy, except that in the hitter phxce, owing to the greater 
depth of water, the nets are about thirty feet deeper, and 
they are also longer. Besides the method of capturing pil- 
chards with deep nets in shallow Avater in the day-time, 
there is a far more common mode in Cornwall of taking them 
in shallow nets, in deep water, by night. As these drift- 
nets are always spread in the open sea, where they might 
be destroyed by vessels sailing over them, their head-ropes 
are sunk about eighteen feet below the surface, and kept 
suspended at that depth by cork buoys fixed at regular in- 
tervals. By this contrivance, not only are the nets pre- 
served, but larger quantities of fish are taken. These nets, 
each with a driving-boat attached, are left to go with the 
wind or tide all the time the net remains in the water. 

As soon as the pilchards caught by the seine or drift- 
nets are landed, some are sold in the neighboring towns and 
villages, and the rest, when cured and placed in barrels, are 
exported to the Mediterranean, where, during Lent, they 
are much sought after. 

The method of curing the pilchards is very simple. They 
are placed in cellars, and women are employed in arranging 
them in layers, with salt between. After remaining in bulk 
about five weeks, during which oil and other matters drain 
from them, they are put into troughs of water, washed quite 
clean, and then carefully laid in casks, where they are sub- 
jected to heavy pressure for about a week. The oil thus 
expressed flows out from holes at the bottom or crevices in 
the sides of the untightened casks, and as this reduces their 
contents, more fish are added, until each cask, when the 
pressure is removed, weighs at least four hundredweight. 
The capital employed in the Cornish pilchard fishery 
amounts to at least two hundred and fifty thousand pounds, 
and affords employment to about ten thousand persons. 

The Sprat was formerly considered by naturalists to be 
the young of the herring, as well as that of the pilchard ; it 



238 SPRATS, WHITEBAIT, AND SARDINES. 

is now generally admitted to be a distinct species. This fish 
comes into season in November, and continues so all the 
winter months, during which the sale, especially in London, 
is immense. About five hundred boats are annually em- 
ployed in the sprat fishery. So great is the abundance 
sometimes, that thousands of tons are sold to farmers for 
manure. Most fish are caught on dark and foggy nights. 

The Whitebait, little fishes from three to six inches in 
length, the delicious flavor of which the reader may have 
often enjoyed, are caught by means of bag-nets, sunk four 
or five feet below the water. They are very abundant in 
many parts of the British coasts, particularly in the estuary 
of the Thames in spring and summer, when they arrive in 
shoals to deposit their spaAvn. For several months they 
continue to ascend the river with the flood tide, and descend 
with the ebb tide, not being able to live in fresh water. It 
was formerly supposed that this fish was the young of the 
shad, or sprat, but is now regarded as a distinct species. 

The Sardine, a fish of the same genus with the herring 
and pilchard, smaller than the latter, abounds in the Medi- 
terranean, and is found also in the Atlantic Ocean. The 
sardines of the west coast of France, which are largely im- 
ported into other countries, are generally young sprats, and 
sometimes young herrings. This " sardine " fishery is a 
great business in France, and especially at Concarneau, 
where as many as thirteen thousand men aid in the fishery. 
This is conducted in a way remarkable for the extravagance 
it involves. The sprat fisheries on the British coast — in- 
deed, all other net fisheries — are carried on in the most 
primitive way ; but the French have made it a " bait " fish- 
ery, and use the roe of the cod, which is brought at a con- 
siderable expense from the North seas for the purpose. The 
fish are gutted, beheaded, sorted into sizes, and washed in 
sea-water, then dried on nets or willows ; they are then 
placed in a pan, kept over a furnace, and filled with boiling 



THE COD FISHERY. 239 

oil. The fish are plunged into the cauldron, two rows deep, 
arranged on wire gratings. They are afterwards placed to 
drip, the oil being carefully collected, after which they are 
packed in the tin boxes with which Ave are so familiar. It 
is said that, besides the qiiantity exported, as many as four 
millions are annually prepared for the home market. 

We need not enter into any particulars about the Cod 
fishery on the banks of New^foundland, which presents noth- 
ing new or very interesting except in the value attached to 
every part of this valuable fish. The tongue of the cod, 
whether fresh or salted, is a great delicacy ; the gills are 
used as baits in fishing; the liver, which is large and good 
for eating, also furnishes an enormous quantity of oil, now 
much esteemed for consumptive patients; the swimming- 
bladder furnishes an isinglass; the head is eaten, and the 
Norwegians give it, with marine plants, to their cows, to 
produce a greater quantity of milk; the vertebree, the ribs, 
and the bones are given by the Icelanders to their cattle ; 
even the intestines and eggs are eaten. The coast of Ice- 
land abounds in fish, especially of the cod tribe, and this 
abundance has not only from a very early time supplied the 
inhabitants with their chief food, but enabled them to pro- 
cure other necessaries. As the principal fishings begin on 
the Newfoundland coast, at the Feroe Islands, in Norway, 
and in Iceland at the same time, it seems evident that the 
cod is not a migratory fish, but a dweller where it finds its 
food. The Icelanders fish chiefly from open boats, and 
sometimes from decked ones. Only the largest boats, with 
six or twelve oars, are used in the cod fishery, and in these 
the natives often go out many miles to sea in the depth of 
winter to fish. They are a most hardy set of mariners. 
Their mode of capturing the cod is either by small drift- 
nets, deep-sea or hand lines, and the ordinary long line. 
The fish caught by the net are different from those taken 
by the line, being more plump, with smaller heads. The 



240 MODE OF TAKING CODFISH. 

number of Iceland boats employed in the cod fisheries aver- 
age nearly five thousand, and the number of persons em- 
ployed exceeds ten thousand. 

The modern cod-smack usually carries from nine to eleven 
men and boys, including- the captain. The line is chiefly 
used for the purpose of taking cod or haddock. Bach man 
has a line of three hundred feet in length, and attached to 
each of these lines are one hundred " snoods," with hooks 
already baited with mussels, pieces of herring, or whiting. 
Each line is laid " clear " in a shallow basket or " skull ;" that 
is, it is so arranged as to run freely as the boat shoots ahead. 
The three hundred feet line, with one hundred hooks, is 
called in Scotland a " taes." If there are eight men in a boat, 
tlie length of the line will be two thousand four hundred 
feet, with eight hundred hooks (the lines being tied to each 
other before setting). On arriving at the fishing-ground, 
the fishermen heave overboard a cork buoy with a flag-staff 
affixed to it, about six feet in height. The buoy is kept 
fixed by a line reaching to the bottom of the water, and 
having a stone or small anchor fastened to the lower end. 
To this line, called the "pow-end," is also fastened the fish- 
ing-line, Avhich is then " paid " out as fast as the boat sails. 
Should the wind be unfavorable, the oars are used. When 
the line is all out the end is dropped, and the boat returns 
to the buoy. The pow-end is hauled up, with the anchor 
and fishing-line attached to it. The fishermen then haul in 
the line with whatever fish may be on it. Eight hundred 
fish might be taken by eight men in a few hours by this 
operation. Many a time the fish are eaten off" the line by 
the dog-fish and other enemies, so that a few fragments and 
a skeleton or two remain to show that fish have been caught. 
The fishermen of " deck-welled cod-bangers " use both hand- 
lines and long lines. The cod-bangers' tackling is, of course, 
stronger than that used in open boats. The long lines are 
called " grut lines " or great lines. Every deck-welled cod- 



THE HADDOCK AND COAL-FISH. 241 

banger carries a small boat on dock, for woi'king the great 
lilies in inodorute weather. This boat is also provided with 
a well, ill which the fish are kept alive till they arrive at the 
banger, when they are transferred from the small boat's well 
to that of the larger vessel. 

The Haddock, which has a striking family resemblance to 
the cod, is taken both by trawl-nets and lines, and being in 
great esteem by fish-eaters for the excellence of its flavor, 
we ought to be pleased that the fish is so partial to our own 
coasts, where it appears in vast shoals at particular seasons. 
Fishermen sometimes find haddocks and other fishes caught 
in their lines reduced to mere skin and skeleton by the Hag, 
one of the species allied to the Lamprey family, resembling 
an eel or worm, and a perfect anatomist in its way. It is 
believed to enter by the mouth of the haddock, and thus 
prey upon it: the fish thus treated is called a " robbed " fish. 
As many as six hags have been taken out of a single had- 
dock, and they are also said to make their way into fishes 
through the skin, and are hence sometimes called " borers." 
It is supposed, however, that the hags are swallowed by 
fishes, and, in retaliation, work out their insides. 

The Coal-fish — a relative of the cod, with a very vulgar 
name, derived from its black coat, but a fish of really hand- 
some form, and about two or three feet in length — takes a 
bait with extraordinary eagerness: when a boat falls in with 
a shoal, they may be kept beside it by being thus attracted 
till the whole are captured. It is abundant in all Northern 
seas, and is taken on the British coasts. In many parts of 
Scotland they are well known to juvenile anglers, who take 
them in plenty from the end of piers, often with a rude 
tackle and almost any kind of bait. In the winter-time, 
while the fry of this fish is in the harbor of Orkney, it is 
common to see five or six hundred people, of all ages, fishing 
for them with small angling-rods about six feet long, and a 



TRK LING AND TUIIDOT. 243 

line a little longer; but with this simple apparatus they kill 
vast numbers. The whole harbor is covered with boats. 

Other members of the cod family are caught much in the 
same manner as their representative, and are very valuable 
as food, especially the Ling. The sounds (air-bladders), are 
pickled, and the roes are preserved in brine, and eaten as 
food, or used as a means of attracting fish by throwing it 
about the nets, as is often done by French fishermen. The 
Common Hake, a fish sometimes measuring three feet, is also 
plentiful on the English and Irish coasts, and very voracious. 
When enclosed in a net with pilchards — as frequently hap- 
pens on the Cornish coast — it gorges itself with them : It 
is to this species, and the common cod when dried and salted 
for exportation, to which the name of " stock " fish is usually 
applied. Forty thousand hakes have been landed on the 
shores of Mount's Bay in Cornwall in a single day, and the 
quantity captured on the Irish coast is immense. Galway 
Bay is sometimes called the "Bay of Hakes" from the numbers 
of that fish taken. 

The Turbot, an especial delight of fish epicures in all 
times, is taken, with other flat fish, by lines and hooks, the 
fishermen going out in parties of three to a "coble," each 
man carrying his long line, the united ends of which are a 
league in length, and draw after them fifteen hundred baited 
hooks; these lines, as they are to lie across the current, can 
only be shot twice in twenty-four hours, when the rush of the 
water slackens as the tide is about to change. The Italians 
christen the turbot the "sea pheasant," from its flavor. The 
Romans were particularly fond of this dainty, and frequent 
allusion to its size occur in their writers; thus : 

" Great turbots and late suppers lead 
To debt, disgrace, and abject need." 

" The border of broadest disb. 

Lay bid beneatli the monster fisb." 



244 CAPTURING THE TURTLE. 

But the size mentioned by the ancient writers is of a fabu- 
lous character. However, it sometimes attains a weight of 
between seventy and ninety pounds. It is now chiefly 
obtained by beam-trawling, a triangular purse-shaped net 
about seventy feet long, usually having a breadth of about 
forty feet at the mouth, and gradually diminishing to the 
end of the net, which is about ten feet long, and of nearly 
uniform breadth. The turbot is of all the flat fishes the most 
valuable. The Brill belongs to the same tribe, as well as 
other less important fishes. The turbot is shorter, broader, 
and deeper than almost any other kind of flat fish. It gen- 
erally keeps close to the bottom of the sea, and is found 
chiefly on banks where there is a considerable depth of 
water. Some of the banks in the German Ocean abound in 
turbots, as the Doggerbank, and yield great quantities to the 
London market. 

In proportion to the benefits derived from the spoils of 
the Turtle, the shell of which is so ornamental and useful in 
the arts, the ingenuity of man has been sharpened by his 
eagerness to acquire them. The modes by which the peo- 
ple of Celebes take them are by the harpoon and the net, or 
by falling on the females when they resort to the strand to 
lay their eggs. The turtle is turned on its back, when, 
unable to turn again, it lies helpless. It sometimes also falls 
into the hands of the dwellers on the coast through means 
of their fishing-stakes, into which it enters like the fish, and 
from which it can find no outlet. It is then killed and 
robbed of its upper shield ; but, as the shells adhere fast to 
each other, and would be injured by being torn off, the usual 
plan is to wait a few days, by which time the soft parts 
become decomposed, and the shells are removed with little 
trouble. When the turtles lie floating on the sea either for 
the purpose of sleep or respiration, the fishermen approach 
them quietly with a sharp harpoon, carrying a ring at the 
butt-end, to which a cord is attached. The harpooner strikes. 



8ING ULAli METHODS OF CUINESE FISHERMEN. 245 

and the -wounded animal divos. but is at last secured by the 
cord. In the South Seas skiltul divers watch them when so 
floating, and getting under the animals, suddenly rise, and so 
seize them. Mr. Darwin describes a curious method of 
capturing turtles which he witnessed at Keeling Island in 
1836: 

'■I accompanied," he remarks, "Captain Pitzroy to an 
island at the head of the lagoon : the channel was exceed- 
ingly intricate, winding through fields of delicately-branched 
corals. We saw several turtles, and two boats were then 
employed in catching them. The water is so clear and 
shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of 
siglit, yet, in a canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers, after 
no very long chase, come up to it. A man standing ready in 
the bows at this moment dashes through the water upon the 
turtle's hack] then clinging with both hands by the shell of 
the neck, he is carried away until the animal becomes 
exhausted, and is secured. It was quite an interesting sight 
to see the two boats thus doubling about, and the men dash- 
ing into the water to secure their prey." 

But the most singular mode of capturing turtles is that 
practised on the coasts of China and the Mozambique, by 
the aid of living fishes trained for the purpose, and thence 
named "fisher-fishes." This fish is a species of remora 
(sucking-fish), and the islanders who use it are said to pro- 
ceed in the following manner : 

They have, in their little boat, tubs containing many of 
these little fishes, the top of Avhose head is covered with an 
oval plate, soft and fleshy at its circumference. In the mid- 
dle of this plate is a very complicated apparatus of bony 
pieces disposed across fn two regular rows, like the laths of 
Persienne blinds. The number of these plates varies from 
fifteen to thirty-six, according to the species : they can be 
moved on their axis by means of particular muscles, and 
their free edires are furnished with small hooks, which are 



246 THE HERMIT CRAB. 

all raised at once like the points of a wool-card. The tail of 
each of the trained fishes in the tubs is furnished with a 
ring for the attachment of a fine but long and strong cord. 
When the fishermen perceive the basking turtles on tlie 
surface of the sea, knowing that the slightest noise would 
disturb the intended victims, they slip overboard one of 
their fish tied to the long cord, and pay out line according 
to their distance from the turtles. As soon as the fish per- 
ceives the floating reptile, he makes towards it, and fixes 
himself so firmly to it that the fishermen pull both fish and 
and turtle into the boat, where the fish is very easily de- 
tached from its prey, and the turtle is secured. 

Crabs, which belong to the highest order ot Crustaceans, 
(a hard covering) are taken by traps — baskets which readily 
permit an entrance, but not their escape, and which are 
baited with meat or animal garbage of some kind — or pots, 
or are caught in the holes of the rocks at low tide with a rod 
and hook. These animals require very careful handling 
when found on the rocks or the sea-shore. Their fighting 
propensities are not confined to other prey, but they have 
fierce encounters among themselves, by means of their for- 
midable claws, with which they lay hold of their adversary's 
legs, and dexterously amputate them. 

The Hermit Crab is one of the most curious of this 
numerous family. A more daring little burglar could not 
be found than this animal, appropriating to its own use the 
shells of whelks and periwinkles, after basely dislodging and 
killing their lawful owners. It is curious to see this crab 
busil}^ parading the sea-shore, dragging its old incommodious 
habitation behind it, unwilling to part with it until another 
and more convenient one is found. It stops first at one shell, 
turns it, pssses by, then goes to another, looks at it atten- 
tively for a time, and then tries it. Not being found suit- 
able, it resumes the old one, and in this manner frequently 
changes, until at length it finds one light, roomy, and com- 



ITS PliEDACEOUS HABITS. 



247 



modious ; into this it enters, and takes up its abode. Fre- 
quently two of them will have a severe contest for possession, 
and a fierce fight ensues. With such very bad instincts 
and unscrupulous habits, it is not surprising that the 




HEUR1X(; FISHING. 



hermit crab should be a very suspicious animal. On the 
slightest alarm it retires into its shell, guarding the entrance 
to it with its largest claw. The structure of the animal 
renders it equal to most emergencies. The part which in 
the lobster becomes a fan-like expansion at the end of the 
tail, is an appendage to the hermit crab for firmly holding 
on by the shell, and so tenacious is the hold that it may be 
torn to pieces, but cannot be pulled out. As they increase 



248 KING CUAB8 AND PILL-MAKER CRABS. 

in size, the hermit crabs are compelled to enter on a fresh 
career of crime. The ancients were well acquainted with 
the predaceous habits of this little marauder. 

Crabs are inhabitants of almost all seas. The different 
kinds vary much in the form of the carapace, or back, which 
in some is round or nearly so : in others longer than broad ; 
in some prolonged in front into a kind of beak, etc. ; also in 
smoothness or roughness, with hairs, excrescences, or spines; 
in the length of the legs, etc. The King Crab, an inhabitant 
of tropical seas, is a remarkable species, having a tail which 
forms a long and powerful dagger-like spine, sometimes 
exceeding in length the whole body. Some of these crabs 
exceed two feet in length, and in the Asiatic islands the 
spine is often used for pointing arrows; in tropical America 
the shell is used as a ladle. At Labuan and Singapore Dr. 
Collingwood met with a new species of crab, the " Pill- 
maker." It is a small creature of its kind, many being the 
size of large peas. Its habit is to take up particles of sand 
in its claws, deposit them in a groove beneath the thorax, 
and afterwards eject them as pellets or pills from its mouth, 
after having extracted what nutriment they may contain. 

The crab (as also the prawn) may be quoted as exercising 
the virtue of conjugal affection to the highest degree, for 
the male takes hold of his mate, and never quits her side, 
swimming wdth her, crawling about with her ; and if she is 
forcibly taken away, the faithful animal will seize hold of 
and endeavor to retain her. 

A traveler mentions a curious example of instinctive 
stratagem in a crab on the shores of the Pacific, about six 
inches in circumference, w^iich covers itself with decaying 
vegetable rubbish, mud, sand, etc., and thus lies in ambush 
for its passing prey. It maintains a sluggish character until 
taken into the hand, or otherwise alarmed, when it becomes 
very active. The spines upon its body to retain the rub- 
bish, the short but strong claws easily concealed, the eyes 



PliAWXS AXB SHRIMPS. 249 

placed at the end of long foot-stalks, curving upwards and 
thus raised above tlie mass, show the beautiful adapation of 
its structure to its liabits. 

Prawns in general form resemble lobsters, cray-fish, and 
shrimps, but belong to a family remarkable for a long saw- 
like beak projecting from the carapace or back. There are 
many species, and some of those inhabiting the warm seas 
attain a large size. Many of them are semi-transparent, and 
have very fine colors. The common prawn is from three to 
four inches in length, is generally taken in the vicinity of 
rocks at a little distance from 'he shore, and osier baskets — 
similar to those employed for catching lobsters — are em- 
ployed for their capture, and nets. 

Shrimps are generally taken by nets in the form of a 
wide-mouthed bag, stretched by means of a short cross-beam 
at the end of a pole, and pushed along by the shrimper, wad- 
ing to the knees in water. Sometimes a net of larger size is 
dragged along bv two boats. The common shrimp is about 
two inches long, and the short beak readily distinguishes it 
from the prawn. When alarmed, it buries itself in the sand 
by a peculiar movement of its fan-like tail. 

Dr. Collingwood mentions a new species of shrimp, which 
he discovered in the warm seas, of a deep violet color (those 
on the Atlantic coast are of a greenish-gray color, dotted 
with brown), and with the cla^v of remarkable construction. 

" I placed it," he says, *' in a basin of water with a small 
crab, Avhose appearance appeared violently to offend it. 
"Whenever the crab came in contact with the shrimp, the lat- 
ter produced a loud sound, the explanation of which is as 
follows: the shrimp possessed two claws — one large and 
stout, and the other long and slender. When irritated, it 
opened the pincers of the large claw very wide, and then 
suddenly closed them with a startling jerk. When the claw 
was in contact with the bottom of the basin, a sound was 
produced as if the basin were struck; but when the claw 



250 PERIWINKLES AND MUSSELS. 

was elevated in the water, the sound was like the snap of a 
finger, and the water was splashed in my face." 

The same authority called this animal the " trigger " 
shrimp, from the action of this claw resembling that of a 
pistol trigger. If only put upon half-cock, this trigger closed 
without noise. 

How wonderful are the means that the Omnipotent Cre- 
ator has provided (as in all things) for the protection of the 
shelly inhabitants ! The hard covering accommodates itself 
to their growth, and at the same time is sufficiently light as 
not to interfere with the movements and functions of the 
interesting tenant. All the various tribes of shell-bearing 
animals are thus defended from the injuries and attacks to 
which their situation exposes them. Thus, some are pro- 
tected by multivalve, or more than two formed tubular shells, 
the tenant protruding its organs at the summit, Avhich is 
defended by the lid, consisting of more than a single piece ; 
in the univalve, or one shell, the animal protrudes itself at 
the sides, and has no valve, as in the common barnacle. The 
bivalves, or animals of two shells, bury themselves in the 
sand, perforate rocks, or suspend themselves by the byssus, 
or thready filaments ; others, again, as the oyster, fix them- 
selves to any convenient substance. 

In the common Periwinkle (a molluscous, or soft-shelled 
animal), the mouth of its shell is closed by a horn}'- cover- 
ing; this is called the "patch," Avhich is attached to the foot, 
or rather neck, by its convex or lower surface : this is the 
lid. 

The Mussel, belonging to the molluscous animals, and the 
common species of which are very abundant on our own 
and English coasts, are much used as bait by fishermen. 
As an article of food it is much consumed in our own country, 
but especially so in Europe. The French people are remark- 
ably clever in their method of cultivating this shell-fish by 
artificial means. About four miles from Rochelle there may 



A WONDERFUL .VUSSEL FARM. 251 

be seen a ■wonderful mussel " farm," wliich has been a 
source of considerable profit for hundreds of years. The 
mussels are grown on frames of basket-work carefully made, 
and are larger and of finer flavor than the natural fish. In 
the year 1035, an Irish bark loaded with sheep was thrown 
in a heavy storm on the rocks near Esnande, on the coasts 
of Saintonge, and the only person on board who was saved 
was the captain, named Walton, Avho amply repaid the ser- 
vices which had been rendered him, for having saved some 
of the sheep from the wreck, he crossed them with the ani- 
mals of the country, and this produced a fine race, Avhicli is 
still known under the name of the " marsh sheep." He next 
devised a kind of net, which was stretched a little above 
the level of the open sea, where it caught large flocks of 
shore-birds which skim the surface of the water at twilight 
or after dark. In order to render these nets thoroughly 
efiective, it w^as necessary to go to the very centre of the 
immense bed of mud where these birds seek their nourish- 
ment. Walton discovered on examining the poles which 
supported his nets that they were covered with mussel- 
spawn. He then increased the number of the poles, and, 
after various attempts, constructed his first artificial mussel- 
bed. At the level of the lowest tides, he drove into the 
mud stakes that were strong enough to resist the force of 
the waves, and placed them in two rows about a yard dis- 
tant from one another. This double line of poles formed an 
angle whose base was directed toward the shore and whose 
apex pointed to the open sea. This palisade was roughly 
fenced in with long branches, and a narrow opening having 
been left at the extremity of the angle, wicker-work cases 
were arranged in such a manner as to stop any fishes that 
were being carried back by the retreating tide. Walton 
had thus combined in one a sort of fish preserve, with a bed 
for the breeding of mussels. The plan soon became very 
popular, and the beds were extended in every direction. 



252 GREAT UTILITY OF THE MUSSEL. 

The little mussels that appear in the spring are called 
seeds, and are scarcely larger than small beans till toward 
the end of May ; but at this time they rapidly increase, and 
in July they attain the size of a full-grown bean. They are 
then fit for transplanting and are placed in bags made of 
old nets, which are set upon the fences that are not quite so 
far advanced into the sea. The young mussels spread them- 
selves all round the bags, fixing themselves by means of 
those silky filaments or threads, called byssus, by which the 
little animals attach themselves to rocks or other substances. 
In proportion as they grow or become crowded together 
within the bags, they are cleared out and distributed over 
poles lying somewhat nearer the shore, while the full-grown 
mussels, which are fit for sale, are planted on the beds near- 
est the shore. It is from this part of the mussel-beds that 
the fishermen reap their harvests, and every day enormous 
quantities of freshly gathered mussels are transported in 
carts or on the backs of horses to La Rochelle, whence they 
are sent to all parts of France. 

As an instance of utility, the common mussel maintains 
the long bridge across the Torridge River, near its junction 
with the Taw, at the town of Bideford in North Devon. At 
this bridge the tide runs so rapidly that it cannot be kept 
with mortar. The corporation therefore keep boats em- 
ployed to bring mussels to it, and the interstices of the 
bridge are kept filled with them. The bridge is supported 
against the violence of the tide by the strong threads of the 
byssus which these mussels fix to the stonework. 

Closely connected with this subject is that of Oyster farm- 
ing, which is practiced quite extensively in England and 
France as well as in our own country. A single visit to the 
shores of Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, Long Island 
and Connecticut would amaze one who had not given this 
subject much thought, and convince them that it was a 




PUNT OR PIROGUE OF THE MARSH. 




PILES, WITH BASKET WORK COVERED WITH MUSSELS. 



254 OYSTER FABMING. 

thriving business in more senses than one, and ever}' year 
becoming more important and extensive. 

Farming, as a term descriptive of this calling or industry, 
may at first seem a misnomer ; but the word is significant 
as used in this sense : Anyone engaging in this undertaking 
bu3's or secures a plot of tvater, and proceeds to stake it out 
in a direct line from the shore ; a neighbor secures a plot 
adjoining, surveys and bounds it in a similar manner. These 
fenced-in water fields present a novel and picturesque scene 
to one who beholds it for the first time. 

To the oyster farmer the times and the seasons are dis- 
tinctly worked and rigidly observed. If he sow and cultivate 
not, neither can he reap. There are comparatively few 
places on our inland Atlantic shores where oyster culture is 
not carried on in some one of its various methods ; there are 
places for keeping them alive until wanted, places for breed- 
ing them in. and places in which they are fattened. Most 
oysters cast their spawn in the months of April or May. 
The spawn is by the fishermen called " spat," and in size and 
figure each resembles the drop of a candle. As soon as it 
is cast, or thrown off, these embryo disks adhers to stones, 
old oyster shells, pieces of wood, or whatever substance 
comes in their way ; a limy secretion issues from the surface 
of their bodies, and in the course of a day begins to be con- 
verted into a shelly substance. It is about two years, how- 
ever, before oysters acquire their full size, and are ready for 
the table. 

Many curious discussions have arisen as to whether 
oysters possess the faculty of locomotion. It is well known 
that, in general, they are firmly attached to stones, to any 
submarine substance, or to each other, and it is generally 
believed that they are not endowed with any power of 
changing their position. It is certain that they are the 
most inanimate of the mollusca, remaining adhered to the 
substance under the waves that they have fixed upon, enjoy- 



THE ENEMIES OF TUE OYSTER. 255 

ing only the nourishment brought it by the waves, and giv- 
ing scarcely any sign of life, except the opening and shut- 
ting of its valves. 

The oyster, particularly when eaten raw, is easy of diges- 
tion, and very nutritous. Its best qualities become impaired, 
however, by cooking, and, though very piquant culinary 
preparations are made from it, such as sauces, ragouts, etc., 
these tempting effects are produced by the sacrifice of the 
best quality of the fish, and should be carefully shunned by 
the invalid. 

The enemies of the oyster are many. The sea-crab seats 
itself upon the shell, and drills a little hole in his back, and 
so kills him. On the sea-shore bushels of shells are found 
quite riddled with holes by this crab. The star-fish was 
known in ancient times to prey upon the oyster. Oppian 

fsays: 

' The prickly star-fish creeps on with fell deceit. 
To force the oyster from his close retreat. 
When gaping lids their widen'd void display. 
The watchful star thrusts in a pointed ray 
Of all its treasures spoils the rifled case, 
And empty shells the sandy hillocks grace. 

The drum-fish — in weight about thirty pounds, and about 
two feet long — swallows oyster and shell; sometimes two or 
three pounds of shells are found in the stomach of this fisli. 
The star-fishes hug the oyster, and wrap their five rays about 
him, but the embrace is one of death to the poor victim. 

It is not surprising that the inhabitants of the ocean 
should feed partly on shell fish; but it is curious to find 
animals strictly terrestrial preying upon them. Monkeys 
are said to descend to the sea to devour what shell-fish they 
may find on the shore. The ourang-outangs are said to feed 
in particular on a large species of oyster ; and, fearful of 
inserting their paws between the open valves lest the 
animal should close and crush them, they first place a toler- 
ably large stone in the shell, and then drag out their victim 



256 IMMENSE QUANTITIES OF OYSTERS TAKEN. 

with safety. Monkeys are no less ingenious. Dampier saw 
several of them take up oysters from the beach, lay them on 
a stone, and beat them with another until they had demol- 
ished the shells. Even the fox, when pressed by hunger, 
will eat mussels and other bivalves; and the raccoon when 
near the shore subsists on them largely, particularly on 
oysters. 

A curious anecdote appeared in " Bell's Weekly Messen- 
ger," of 7tli Januar}^ 1821. A tradesman at Plymouth, 
having placed some oysters in a cupboard, was surprised on 
finding in the morning a mouse caught by the tail by the 
sudden snapping of the shell. At Ashburton, a Mrs. All- 
ridge had placed a dish of oysters in a cellar. A large 
oyster soon expanded its shell, and at the instant two mice 
pounced upon the '' living luxury," and were at once crushed 
between the valves. The oyster, w4th the two mice dang- 
ling from its shell, was for some time exhibited as a curiosity. 
A better natural mouse-trap could not be imagined. 

Among birds the mollusks have many enemies. Several 
of the duck and gull tribes derive a portion of their subsis- 
tence from them. The pied oyster-catcher derives its name 
from this habit. Several kinds of crows likewise feed upon 
shell-fish. Vultures and aquatic birds detach shell-fish 
from the rocks. 

The consumption of oysters is recorded in earliest his- 
tory, but their cultivation in the manner just described is a 
modern invention. This may account in some sense for the 
excessive and greatly superior production of this country. 
Though England and France have made lately rapid strides 
in this direction, their production combined could hardly 
equal that of our own land. The quantity taken from our 
waters is far greater than is generally supposed by those 
not familiar with this important business. The best statis- 
tics are necessarily very incomplete, and also uninteresting 
reading, though much might be said respecting the number 



PECULIARITIES OF THE LOBSTER. 257 

of men and boats employed, the packing and pickling estab- 
lishments with the force employed, the quantity of oysters 
consumed here and exported, wo will merely say in conclu- 
sion that the value of the trade in 1877 amounted to over 
twenty-five million dollars in this country alone. 

The Lobsters (which belong to the Crustacea or hard- 
shelled animals), tlie common species of Avhich is so plentiful 
on the rocky coasts of our own country, and most parts of 
Europe, are generally taken in traps, sometimes made of 
osier twigs, also by nets, sometimes pots, always baited with 
animal garbage, and in some countries by torchlight, Avitli 
the aid of a wooden instrument which acts like a forceps or 
a pair of tongs. They are also taken by the hand, but this 
requires dexterity, for the claws are powerful weapons of 
defence: one is always larger than the other, and the pincers 
of one claw are knobbed on the inner edge, those of the 
other are serrated. It is more dangerous to be seized by the 
serrated than by the knobbed claw. A great authority on 
fish matters says : 

" I once heard a clergyman at a lecture describe a lob- 
ster as a standing romance of the sea; an animal whose 
clothing is a shell, which it casts away once a year, in order 
that it may put on a larger suit; an animal whose flesh is in 
its tail and legs, and whose hair is on the inside of its breast ; 
whose stomach is in its head, and which is changed every 
year for a new one, and which new one begins its life by 
devouring the old. An animal which carries its eggs within 
its body until they become fruitful, and then carries them 
outwardly under its tail; an animal which can throw off its 
legs when they become troublesome, and can in a brief time 
replace them. Lastly, an animal with very sharp eyes 
placed in movable horns." 

The London market alone requires two millions and a 
half of crabs and lobsters annually. Large numbers are sent 
from the Scottish coasts. The west and north-west coasts of 



258 LOBSTERS CHANGE THEIR COLOR. 

Ireland abound with fine lobsters, and welled vessels bring 
from them supplies for the London market of ten thousand 
weekly. A large number of lobsters is brought from Norway, 
as many as thirty thousand arriving from that country in a 
single day, conveyed in wells on board steam vessels, and 
kept in wooden reservoirs, some of which may be seen on 
the Essex side of the Thames. In order that the great mass 
of lobsters may be kept on their best behavior in these 
reservoirs, the great claw is rendered paralytic by means of 
a wooden peg driven into a lower joint: however cruel this 
may seem, it prevents them from tearing each other to 
pieces, so pugnacious are the animals. A good-sized lobster, 
we are informed, will yield about twenty thousand eggs; 
and these are hatched (being so nearly ripe before they are 
abandoned by the mother) with great rapidity, it is said in 
forty-eight hours, and grow quickly, although the young lob- 
ster passes through many changes before it is fit to be pre- 
sented at table. During the early period of growth it casts 
its shell frequently. This wonderful provision for an increase 
of size in the lobster is perfectly surprising. It is indeed 
astonishing to see the complete covering of the animal cast 
off like a suit of old clothes, Avhen it hides, naked and soft. 
in a convenient hole, awaiting the growth of its new" crust 
or coat. Lobsters and crabs change their shell about every 
six weeks during the first year of their age ; every two 
months during the second year ; and afterward the changing 
of the shell becomes less frequent, being reduced to four times 
a year. Previously to putting off their old shell, they appear 
sick, languid, and restless. They acquire an entirely new 
covering in a few days; but during the time they remain 
defenseless they seek some lonely place, lest they should be 
attacked and devoured by such of their brethren as are not 
in the same weak condition. In casting their shells, it is 
difficult to conceive how the lobsters are able to draw the 
flesh of their large claws out, leaving the shells of these 



VORACITY OF THE LOBSTER. '259 

entire and attached to the shell of the body. The fishermen 
say that previous to this operation the lobster pines away 
till the flesh in its claw is no thicker than the quill of a 
goose, which enables it to draw its parts through the joints 
and narrow passage near the trunk. The new shell hardens 
by degrees. 

It is supposed that the lobster becomes reproductive at 
the age of five years. Lobsters are very voracious; they 
are also full of fighting propensities, and have frequent 
combats among themselves, in which limbs are often lost; 
but the limb is soon replaced by the growth of a new one, 
rather smaller than the oUl one. In the water lobsters can 
run nimbly on their legs or small claws, and if alarmed, can 
spring tail foremost to a surprising distance as swift as a 
bird can fly. Fishermen can see them pass about thirty 
feet, and, by the swiftness of their motion, suppose they may 
go much farther. When frightened, they will spring from 
a considerable distance to their hold in the rocks, and will 
force their way into an entrance barely sufficient for their 
bodies to pass. 

Like some of the crabs, lobsters are said to be attached 
to particular parts of the sea. 

" In shelly armor wrapt, the lobsters seek 
Safe shelter in some bay or winding creek ; 
To rocky chasms the dusky natives cleave, 
Tenacious hold, nor will the dwelling leave. 
Nought like their home the constant lobsters prize, 
And foreign shores and seas unknown despise. 
Though cruel bands the banished wretch expel, 
And force the captive from his native cell, 
He will, if freed, return with anxious care, 
Find the known rock, and to his home repair." 

In some parts of Europe the fishermen endeavor, by mak- 
ing violent noises, to drive the fish into their nets ; but these 
are so cunning, that when surrounded by the net, the whole 



260 DOGS TRAINED FOB FISHING. 

shoal will sometimes escape, for if one of them springs over 
it, the rest will follow like sheep. 

The Danish fishermen have a similar mode of taking the 
horn-fishes, called " green-bone " from the color of their 
bones. They are timid, and afraid of the nets, and when 
the shoals approach, the fishermen commence a regular 
bombardment with stones, and so frighten them into their 
meshes. 

A writer mentions a similar practice in Wales : 
" The fishermen," he observes, " commenced their opera- 
tions at every ebbing of the tide, by stretching a seine 
across the river, several hundred paces above the coast; 
and whilst drawing it towards the sea, they incessantly dis- 
turbed the water by beating the surface, as well as hurling 
into it the heaviest stones they could poise. The affrighted 
fish made at once for the sea, Avhich, however, they could 
not reach except by passing through the intervening shal- 
lows. Here they were pursued by dogs trained for the 
purpose, and clubbed or speared b}^ the men. I have 
frequently seen from one to two hundred fine fish, weighing 
from ten to twenty pounds each, taken in this extraordinary 
way." 






GURNARD. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

ODDS AND ENDS ABO UT FISHES 

I^HE description we have quoted of fishes in- 
habiting the Mediterranean Sea corresponds 
entirely with the strange and varied charac- 
ter ascribed to them by ancient and mod- 
ern writers. We will, however, before al- 
luding to any particular species of fishes, 
give a brief outline of their nature generally. From the 
earliest ages fishes were most extensively used as articles of 
diet, and at the present time they form a considerable por- 
tion of the food of mankind generally. In some countries 
they were the only money of commerce, and dried fish were 
paid as current coin. Mythological honors were rendered 
to them by the ancients ; and in the case of sharks, as men- 
tioned in the chapter on " The Pirates of the Ocean," they 
are deified on the African coasts. Fish have been perpetu- 
ated in coins and sculptures, from which many of the spe- 
cies in ancient use can still be traced. 



262 VARIETY IN FORMS OF FISHES. 

Fishes people the ocean with their shoals, and serve to 
keep in check the innumerable creatures of still lower con- 
struction, Avhile they themselves are held in check, and af- 
ford sustenance to millions which have been placed in our 
system above them. In form they are the most varied be- 
ings in creation, and the most inventive fancy could scarcely 
imagine a shape or appearance to Avhich a resemblance would 
not be found. They are of hideous or loathsome bulk or the 
most graceful form, and of gorgeous and resplendent colors; 
all wondrously adapted to the different modes of obtaining 
their food, whether by stealth or deceit, strength or swift- 
ness. The general form of a fish is admirably adapted to 
its native element. In all fishes which require swiftness to 
secure their prey, the tail is the great organ of motion. The 
absence of any neck gives the advantage of a more exten- 
sive and resisting attachment of the head to the body, the 
greater proportion of which is left free for the play of the 
muscular masses which move the tail. Besides serving as 
the rudder or paddle, it is the tail of the fish that enables 
many of them to make those leaps out of the water to which 
we have frequently alluded to in these pages. From the 
enormous whales and sharks to the small stickleback, this 
power seems to belong to the greater number of fishes. 

The fins on the upper surface of the fish serve to balance 
the body; those on the lower surface to turn it, to move it 
slowly, and to keep it suspended in strong currents ; but in 
all these movements the assistance of the tail is observable. 

Some of the fins of fishes are vertical, constituting a kind 
of keel or rudder. They differ in number, size, and the na- 
ture of the rays which support them, being sometimes spiny, 
and in other cases soft and articulated. Those correspond- 
ing to arms or wings are the pectorals (the chest), invariably 
fixed behind the gills. 

Paley, in his " Natural Theology," thus sums up the actions 
of the fins of fishes: "The pectoral, and more particularly 



^WIMMI^'a BLADDERS IN FISHES. 263 

the ventral (belonging to the stomach) fins serve to raise 
and depress the fish : when the fish desires to have a retro- 
grade motion, a stroke forward with the pectoral fin effectu- 
ally produces it; if the fish desires to turn either way, a 
single blow with the tail the opposite way sends it round at 
once; if the tail strike both ways, the motion produced by 
the double lash is progressive, and enables the fish to dart 
forwards with an astonishing velocity. The result is not only 
in some cases the most rapid, but in all cases the most 
gentle, pliant, easy, animal motion with which we are 
acquainted. In their mechanical use, the anal fin may be 
reckoned the keel; the ventral fins, the outriggers; the pec- 
toral fins, the oars [and, we may now add, the caudal fin, 
the screw-propeller]. And, if there be any similitudes 
between those parts of a boat and a fish, observe," adds 
Paley, " it is not the resemblance of imitation, but the like- 
ness which arises from applying similar mechanical means 
to the same purpose." 

Another powerful aid to the buoyancy of fishes is the air 
or swimming-bladder, which is described as a philosophical 
apparatus in the body of an animal. It is easy to see at the 
back-bone of the herring and other fishes a shining pearly- 
looking membrane, almost enveloped by the roe or milt of 
the fisli. This is the air or swimming-bladder; and it is of 
this, as found in the sturgeon, the carp, the ling, and many 
other fishes, when dried and prepared by certain processes, 
that the substance called isinglass is manufactured. 

It is the swimming-bladder that serves the fish for rising 
or sinking in the waters; but in such fishes as reside at the 
bottom of the sea or never come to the surface, this bladder 
is almost always wanting. How truly wonderful is this pro- 
vision of nature! It would be very worthy of inquiry to 
know by what method an animal which lives constantly in 
water is able to supply a repository of air. 

The bodies of fishes are nearly the same specific gravity as 



2b4: RESPIRATION, SMELL, AND TASTE OF FISHES. 

the water in which they live, owing to the great quantity 
of fat they contain, so that very little effort is required to 
keep them at any given height, and their ascent or descent 
in the water. 

The circulation of blood is peculiar. There is but a 
single heart in fishes, that is, a heart consisting of only two 
cavities; and these correspond not to the left heart of mam- 
mals or birds, but to their right or pulmonic heart. 

Respiration is carried on by means of the gills, which 
take the place of lungs, and consist of a large number of 
blood vessels, placed near the forward extremity of the ani- 
mal, and protected by a bony case or covering, often 
defended by strong spines. The gills are placed in imme- 
diate communication with the heart. Water, which is 
impregnated with atmospheric air, entering at the mouth, is 
forced out again by the apertures at each side of the neck, 
and thus maintains almost a constant stream or rush through 
them, entering and again expelled at intervals. When 
fishes are taken from the water, the delicate thready 
structure of the gills immediately collapses; when exposed 
to the air a kind of suffocation ensues, and death is the 
result. This is the general principle of respiration in fishes, 
but in some cases the structure varies. 

The smell of fishes in some species is remarkable: 
they scent their prey at a great distance, and the very per- 
fection of this function is often fatal to them. Some fishes 
are so allured by scents, that by smearing the hand over 
with them, and immersing it in water, fishes (not sharks, 
let us hope) will often fiock toward the fingers, and may 
easily be taken. Fishermen have the habit of making their 
bait more attractive by steeping it in some strong-smelling 
ingredient. On the American shores, the fishermen use 
putrid or damaged fish as bait for mackerel. They are 
thrown in a box hopper, in which a cylinder studded with 
knives is made to revolve by a crank. This is called the 



TOUCH AND SIGHT OF FISHES. 266 

" bait-mill," and by its aid the contents are reduced to a 
kind of paste, which is thrown into the sea to attract the 
fish, which are then caught by lines with hooks, having a piece 
of polished pewter attached as a lure. In all fishes, nostrils 
or external openings are very apparent, and in these the 
nerves of smell are distributed. 

Taste in fishes (as in animals who almost invariably 
swallow their food without mastication) cannot be very 
acute, since their tongue is in great part bony, and is often 
furnished with teeth and other hard coverings. 

The organ of touch is in general as imperfect as that of 
taste: without prolonged members, and flexible fingers 
capable of grasping, they can scarcely explore the forms of 
objects by any other means than by their lips. Certain little 
fleshy tendrils Avhich some fishes possess may supply the im- 
perfections of touch in the other organs. 

The bodies of most fishes are covered with small brilliant 
plates of a horny nature called scales, but in some kinds 
these are wanting, as in the turbot and others, in place of 
which are found bony protuberances in some species, and in 
others a very smooth skin without scales, and covered with 
a thick gelatinous secretion from the body. The scales con- 
sist of a substance chemically resembling the composition of 
bones and teeth. They usually overlap each other like tiles. 
Some are very thick forming a kind of armor. 

In general, fish have large eyes, and in particular the 
pupil is very broad and open, as might be expected in crea- 
tures who require great powers of vision in the deep, where 
light penetrates but scantily. The eyes have no real eye- 
lids, the skin passing over them mostly in a transparent form, 
to admit light; and they are sometimes opaque or dense. 
Some varieties of fish, whose eyes are fixed on the upper 
surface of their bodies, cannot see what prey they swallow : 
others have no outward indication of an eye. " No tear 
moistens, no eyelid shelters or wipes the surface ; the eyes 



266 TEETH. HEARING, AND BRAIN OF FISHES. 

of fish are only representations of that beautiful and ani- 
mated organ which is found in the superior class of animals." 

"The teeth of fishes," says Professor Owen, "whether we 
study them in regard to their number, form, substance, 
structure, situation, or mode of attachment, offer a greater 
and more striking series of varieties than do those of any 
other class of animals. In number they range from zero to 
countless quantities. In the sharks and rays the teeth are 
supported by the upper or lower jaws, as in most quadrupeds ; 
but many other fishes have teeth growing from the roof of 
the mouth, from the surface of the tongue, from the bony 
hoop or arches supporting the gills, and some have them 
developed from the bone of the nose and the base of the 
skull." In all fishes the teeth are shed and renewed not 
once only as in mammals, but frequently during the whole 
course of their lives. 

Fishes have but small occasion for the sense of hearing, 
being condemned to reside in the empire of silence, where 
all around is mute. In most fishes the auditory parts are 
buried in the skull, and send no process to the surface. 

Singular stories, however, are told of fishes being sensible 
to the sound of music. Ancient writers — -^lian and Aris- 
totle — mention some fishes, and particularly skates, who are 
attracted in this manner. Two men embark in a boat, one 
with a musical instrument and the other with a net, and by 
this music the fishes become so entranced as to be taken 
easily. A somewhat similar mode is said to be practised by 
the boatmen of the Danube, who use bells for the purpose. 
Carp have been known to distinguish the sound of a bell, 
and the voice of their keeper when called to be fed. 

The brain of fishes is remarkably small in proportion to 
the size of the animal, the quantity of nerves arising out of 
it,-and the size of the cavity which contains it. The space 
thus left vacant is often filled with oil or fat. 

Some fishes are not altoo-ether indifferent to the fate of 



VARIED USES OF FISH. 267 

their brood. We have ah-eady alhided to the attachment 
of the mammalian order for their young. Some fishes leave 
the depths of the ocean, and deposit their spawn in the 
shallows, where the young fry are comparatively safe from 
the voracity of their numerous enemies. Some build nests 
for their young, as we will further explain in this chapter. 

The eggs of fishes are generally deposited on the surface 
of the water, Avhere they float during the period of their 
development. 

It is in the Northern seas that fishes display their most 
astonishing fecundity — not so much in the variety of species 
as in the multitude of individuals of a species; and the 
ocean nowhere else produces an abundance of fish approach- 
ing to the myriads of herring and cod in that quarter. 

The uses to which fish are applied are numerous. They 
afford a valuable manure when they are to be had in plenty. 
Fishery-salt is also a great fertilizer. Pretty ornaments are 
made from fish-scales, as brooches, bracelets, &c.; the eyes 
of fishes are also employed by the makers of shell flowers for 
imitating buds. Mock pearls are made from an essence 
obtained by scraping the scales off" the bleak (a fresh-water 
fish) and the whitebait. The natives of the north-west 
coast of this country make from the entrails of fishes brace- 
lets, fishing-lines, thread, Avork-bags, head-dresses, and 
needle-cases; fish-hooks and needles are made of the bones. 

We have already alluded to isinglass, which is made from 
the dense membrane which forms the air-bladder of the 
sturgeon and other fishes. Oil forms a staple article of 
commerce. The dog-fish is caught principally for the oil 
from its liver — a large fish yielding about a barrel-full. The 
skin of this fish is used to refine liquors, clear coffee, &c. 

Our English ancestors were firm believers in the curative 
properties of certain fish. Pickled herrings Avere applied 
to the soles of the feet in fevers ; pilchards Avere in great 
request for the sAvellings of the gums and legs; the flesh of 



268 



ELECTBIG FI8HE8. 



the tunny was considered an antidote to poison; the teeth 
of thornbacks, bruised in a mortar, were used for sore eyes; 
the gall for complaints of the ear ; the bones of the sturgeon 
were reduced to powder and applied in rheumatic cases; 
oyster and mussel-shells ground to powder were also em- 
ployed. 

Wonderful is the property of several species of fish of 
inflicting electric shocks so severe as to produce exhaustion 
and numbness of the nerves exposed to its action. That 
God should arm certain fishes, in some sense, with the light- 
ning of the clouds, and enable them thus to employ an 
element so potent and irresistible as we do gunpowder, to 
astound, and smite, and stupefy, and kill the inhabitants of 
the water, is one of those wonders of an Almighty arm 
which no terrestrial animal is gifted to exhibit. 




ELECTRIC EEL. 



The Torpedo, popularly named by fishermen " numb-fish " 
and " cramp-fish," a genus of fishes of the Ray order, is aliving 
electrical machine, which has the power of striking its enemies 
even at a very considerable distance. Fishermen constantly 
witness evidences of the singular faculty of this fish. As 
soon as it enters their net they are made aware of the fact 
bv the shocks which are transmitted through the tackle by 



ELECTRIC APPARATUS OF THE TORPEDO. 26y 

which it is suspended. These have been known to be suffi- 
ciently violent to compel the men to let ^o when they are 
drawing their nets, and thus allow the whole haul to fall 
back into the sea. 

The Torpenididoe, as this family is termed, has been 
divided into a number of genera. They have a short and 
not very thick tail, cylindrical towards the end, and in out- 
ward appearance somewhat resemble a skate, and have 
nearly the same habits. Two species of the torpedo are 
occasionally found on the southern coasts of England, the 
common, or 3Iarmorata, which sometimes attains a large 
size, weighing a hundred pounds; and the Nohiliana, M'hich 
is more rare. They are readily distinguished by the spira- 
cles behind the eyes, which are round and fringed at the 
edges in the former and perfectly smooth in the latter. 
These and other species are found more plentifully in the 
Mediterranean. When the torpedo is disposed to " astonish " 
any one, she furnishes to a careful observer the following 
premonitory indications other intentions: the back — which, 
unlike that of the cat — is gibbous and raised when she is in 
good humor, flattens as she waxes angry, till the convex 
surface, gradually drawn in, becomes at length slightly con- 
cave ; and at the same time the eyes, remarkably prominent 
during the repose of the creature, are retracted far back in 
the orbits. These are the precursory signals that the phials 
of her Avrath are to be poured forth ; the shock then 
instantly follows, and the fish as suddenly swells out again, 
recovering its usual form, generally to prepare for a new 
attack. These shocks follow in rapid succession: she some- 
times inflicts forty or fifty broadsides in the course of one 
minute, and they are sufficiently powerful to destroy, as by 
lightning, small animals exposed to their infiuence. 

Cuvier describes the electric apparatus of this fish to 
consist of a series of honevcombed-looking cells, filled with 



270 INCIDENTS BELATED. 

a thickish gelatinous fluid, and abundantly supplied with 
nerves, situated between the gills and the head of the fish. 

The electrical organs are two in number. The number 
of cells varies according to the size of the fish ; thus, in 
each organ of one fish were counted four hundred and sev- 
enty, and in another large fish one thousand one hundred 
and eighty-two. This natural electricity can be drawn from 
the fish by means of a conductor, and a shock is felt through 
a circuit formed by several persons joining hands. 

The electrical effects produced on the fisherman who 
seize them were noted from early times ; but Redi, the Ital- 
ian naturalist of the seventeenth century, was the first who 
studied them scientifically. He caught and landed one of them 
with every precaution. " I had scarcely touched and pressed 
it Avith my hand," says the Italian artist, " than I experi- 
enced a tingling sensation, which extended to my arms and 
shoulders, which was followed by a disagreeable trembling, 
with a painful and acute sensation in the elbow joint, which 
made me withdraw my arm immediately." 

Reaumur also made some observations upon the Torpedo. 
"The benumbing influence," he says, "is very different from 
any similar sensation. All over the arm there is a commo- 
tion which it is impossible to describe, but which, so far as 
comparison can be made, resembles the sensation produced 
by striking the tender part of the elbow against a hard sub- 
stance." Redi remarks, besides, that the pain and trembling 
sensation resulting from the touch diminishes as the death 
of the Torpedo approaches, and that it ceases altogether 
when the animal dies. 

In the seventeenth century the fishermen affirmed that 
the sensation was even communicated through the line by 
which it was caught, and even by the water. Redi does 
not deny this phenomenon, neither does he confirm it. He 
states that the action of the animal is never more energetic 
than when it is strongly pressed by the hand, and makes 



ELECTRIC EEL. 271 

violent efforts to escape. Neither Redi nor Reaumur, how- 
ever, could explain the cause of the strange phenomenon. 
It was reserved for Dr. Walsli, a Fellow of the Royal Soci- 
ety of London, to demonstrate the fact that the power was 
electrical in its nature. Tliis he did by numerous experi- 
ments which he made in the Isle of R6. The following are 
some of the experiments: 

He placed a living torpedo upon a clean wet towel ; from 
a plate he suspended two pieces of brass wire by means of 
silken cord, which served to isolate them. Round the tor- 
pedo were eight persons, standing on isolating substances. 
One end of the brass wire was supported by the wet towel, 
the other end being placed in a basin full of water. The 
first person had a finger of one hand in this basin, and a 
finger of the other in a second basin, also full of water. 
The second person placed a finger of one hand in this sec- 
ond basin, and a finger of the other hand in a third basin. 
The third person did the same, and so on, until a complete 
chain was established between the eight persons and nine 
basins. Into the ninth basin the end of the second brass 
wire was plunged, while Dr. Walsh applied the other end 
to the back of the torpedo, thus establishing a complete 
conducting circle. At the moment when the experimenter 
touched the torpedo, the eight actors in the experiment felt 
a sudden shock, similar in all respects to that communicated 
by a shock of a Leyden jar, only less intense. 

Another fish little inferior to the torpedo in its " shock- 
ing " properties is the electric eel. Its ph^^sical properties 
enable it to arrest suddenly the pursuit of an enemy or the 
flight of its prey, to suspend on the instant every movement 
of its victim, and subdue it by an invisible power. Even 
the fishermen themselves are suddenly struck and rendered 
torpid at the moment of seeing it, while nothing external 
betrays the mysterious power possessed by the animal. 
At Calabozo on the Orinoco, the electric eel abound in 



272 MODE OF TAKING THEM. 

great numbers. The natives have a unique and most curious 
mode of securing these formidable eels; the Indians them- 
selves would describe it as " intoxicating by means of 
horses." From the neighboring savannahs a score or more of 
half-wild horses and mules are encircled by tlie natives and 
gradually driven to some adjacent marsh or stagnant basin 
surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and known to abound 
with the Gymnotis. The animals being forced from all sides 
are surel}' forced into tlie water, when a grand battle com- 
mences and a wonderful spectacle may be witnessed. The 
Indians,, armed with long canes and harpoons, place them- 
selves around the basin, some of them mounting the trees, 
the branches of which hang over the water, and by their 
cries, and still more by their canes, prevent tlie animals 
from landing again. The eels stunned by the noise, defend 
themselves by repeated discharges of their batteries. To one 
witnessing such a scene for the first time, it would probably 
seem that the eels must come off victorious. Such a picture 
is truly indescribable: groups of Indians surrounding the 
basin; the horses with bristling manes, terror and grief in 
their eyes, trying to escape from the storm which had 
surprised them ; the eels yellow and livid, looking like 
great aquatic serpents swimming on the surface of the 
water, and chasing their enemies, are objects at once appal- 
ling and picturesque. In a few moments, many of the horses, 
benumbed by the repeated shocks of the eels are drowned. 
But gradually the eels themselves become bewildered or 
intoxicated, shun in place of attacking, and are slowly 
driven toward the banks, where they are easily taken by 
means of the little harpoon thrown at them. Being landed, 
the eels are transported to little pools dug in the soil and 
filled with fresh water ; such is the terror inspired that 
the natives are very reluctant to take them from the har- 
poons, until life has expired, for fear of receiving the terri- 
ble shock. 



STINOm^'G FISHES. 273 

A remarkable power of sting-ing is possessed by some of 
the inhabitants of the deep. What is called the Trygon, or 
Sting-Ray, is able to inflict severe wounds by its muscular 
and flexible tail, which it winds around the object of attack, 
and with the sword or spine at its base, pierces and lascer 
ates. This weapon is armed Avith rows of serrated teeth at 
each side, every tooth of which is a small saw. The worst 
and most dangerous wound, however, is when the elastic 
tail dashes the apparatus, saws and all, into an unfortunate 
fisherman's thigh (as has frequently happened, in sj)ite of 
the ordinary precautions), dragging it out again to make a 
new lunge before the unhappy victim has had time to escape ; 
and so expert is this fish in this small-sword exercise, and 
so swiftly does stroke follow stroke, that persons Avho have 
seen it in operation report that, but for the spouting of 
fresh blood, and the larger display of raw surface, they 
would have declared the weapon motionless all the time. 
The terrible suffering inflicted by this atrocious caudine 
weapon — which is borne by four other colossal skates, as 
well as by the sea-eagle — has caused it to be regarded with 
as much superstitous reverence by fishermen as was the tail 
of his music-master, Chiron, by the youthful Achilles. 

The Sting-Ray fish attains a colossal size in the Mediter- 
ranean. He possesses an enormous pair of fins, which, 
stretching out from either side of the body, offer a striking 
resemblance to a pair of wide-spread wings ; and he has, 
moreover, a detached head, terminating in a porrect (ex- 
tended) process, like a beak, and a large pair of piercing 
bright eyes, whence the origin of its appellation of " sea- 
eagle." 

The Great Weever or Sting-Bull, and the Little or Viper 
Weever, possess the same formidable properties as the 
stinging ray. Both are found on English coasts, the former 
being about a foot long, and the other about four or five 
inches. Though of such small dimensions, these fishes are 



274 TROPICAL DOCTOR FISHES. 

troublesome to encounter. The fins are spiny, and the gill- 
cover is furnished with a strong and sharp spine, which is 
directed backward, but is capable of being made erect to 
meet an enemy. This they use by a sudden bending of the 
body. The little weever buries itself in the sand, watching 
for its prey, leaving only its snout exposed, and if trod upon, 
it immediately uses its weapon with great force. 

We have, in the chapter on " The Floating Navigators of 
the Ocean," alluded to the stinging powers of the Physalis, 
or "Portuguese man-of-war." It is a common trick with 
sailors to make a novice pick up one of these beautiful crea- 
tures, and then enjoy his discomfiture. 

The Acanthuri (signifying " a spine " and " tail"), tropical 
fishes, some of which are remarkable for beauty of form and 
variety of colors, possess also a power of inflicting dangerous 
stings or wounds, which has obtained for them the name of 
" doctors " from our sailors, on account of the severe wounds 
they inflict on such as handle them unwarily. They have 
teeth trenchant and notched, and a strong spine at each 
side of the tail as sharp as a lancet, whence they are also 
called lancet-fishes. With these weapons they defend them- 
selves with courage and success against the largest of their 
assailants. Many other fishes possess the same power of 
inflicting stings and wounds: living a life of constant warfare 
in the deep. Nature has bestowed upon them means of de- 
fence and for procuring their prey. 

It is worthy of observation that, with very few excep- 
tions, the immense population of the ocean is carnivorous. 
The principal circumstance that regulates the choice of diet 
among fishes seems to be the power of mastery. Of terres- 
trial creatures, a very large number are peaceful, never, un- 
der ordinary circumstances, willingly taking the life of even 
the most helpless around them ; but the sea is a vast slaugh- 
ter-house, where nearly every inhabitant dies a violent death, 
and finds a grave in the maw of his fellow. Yet let us not 



THE REMOBA OR SUCKING FISH. 275 

arraign the providence of God, as if it were cruel and un- 
kind : a sudden termination of existence is the most merci- 
ful mode, as far as we can conceive, by which the overflow 
of animal life could be checked. 
As James Montgomery says: 

" 'Twas wisdom, mercy, goodness that ordain'd 
Life in such infinite profusion — Death 
So sure, so prompt, so multiform to those 
That never sinn'd, that know not guilt, that fear 
No wrath to come, and have no heaven to lose." 

A very interesting family of fishes, for the peculiar prop- 
erties which they possess, are the Sucking-fishes — remarka- 
ble for having the ventral fins united under the surface of 
the body to form the apparatus which distinguishes them. 
To this family belong the Sea-Owl Snail, and one or two 
British species, including the Lump-sucker. This animal 
has a grotesque and clumsy form, but the colors which orna- 
ment it are very fine, combining various shades of blue, pur- 
ple, and orange. It attains a tolerably large size — about 
nineteen inches — weighing sometimes seven or eight pounds. 
Its sucker is so powerful that a pail, containing some gallons 
of water, has been lifted, when one of these fishes contained 
in it was taken by the tail. 

To this family Cuvier also referred the far-famed Remora ; 
noticing, however, the different position of the sucking disc, 
and other important distinctions, on account of which a very 
different place is now assigned to it. The use of the suck- 
ing apparatus is, however, much the same — that of attaching 
the animal to fixed substances, so that it may remain and 
obtain its food, where otherwise it would be swept away by 
the current. 

The remora was the subject of much imaginative terror 
to the ancients, who believed that it had the power to im- 
pede or stop the course of a ship. Oppian says: 



THE SEA LAMPREY. 277 

" The seamen run confiis'd, no labor spared, 
Let tiy the slieets, and hoist the topmast yard; 
The master bids them give her all the sails, 
To court the winds and catch the coming gales; 
But though the canvas bellies with the blast, 
And boisterous winds bend down the cracking mast. 
The bark stands firmly rooted on the sea, 
And all unmov'd as tower or towering tree." 

Pliny writes : " Wli>^ should our fleets and armadas at 
sea make such turrets on the walls and forecastles, when one 
little fish (see the vanity of man!) is able to arrest and stay^ 
perforce, our goodly and tall ships?" 

These are droll fancies ; but, tested by the fact, the adhe- 
sive powers of this fish are very remarkable, great weights 
being dragged by it, and retaining its hold with a bull-dog 
tenacity, even submitting to be torn to pieces before it will 
relinquish its hold. It is frequently seen among other fishes 
in the Atlantic, attaching itself to some one or other by its 
sucker, and often, also, to the rudder or bottom of a ship. 

The length of the Mediterranean remora is about eight- 
een inches, and the length of the head is nearly one-fifth of 
the proportion of the whole fish. Feeding principally on 
the small animals diffused throughout the waters of the 
ocean, it probably receives a sufficiency of food even when 
attached to a moving object, as a ship or large fish, merely 
by opening its mouth, which has a very large gape. 

Belonging to a distinct family, but employing its mouth 
as a powerful sucker, is the Sea-Lamprey, a species resem- 
bling eels in the rounded shape of the body and a certain 
similarity of habits. The mouth is circular, armed with 
hard tooth-like processes, and provided with a flexible lip. 
So great is the power of suction which it possesses, that a 
stone has been raised by it out of the water, weighing ten 
or twelve pounds, and yet the fish measures but from two 
to three feet. 

The historical renown of the lamprey is very great. It 



278 FED ON HUMAN FLESH. 

was the fixvorite dish of the Romans, who kept the fishes in 
ponds at a great expense. The best lampreys were pro- 
cured from Sicily as presents to the reigning emperors and 
high officials. A hundred pieces of gold were sometimes 
paid for them. 

A horrible story is told of Pollio, a friend of Augustus 
Ccesar, who, on the supposition that lampreys fed on human 
flesh were more delicate, ordered his slaves, when accused 
of the slightest fault, to be thrown into his fish-pond. This 
cruelty was discovered when one of his servants broke a glass 
in the presence of the Emperor, who had been invited to a 
feast. The master ordered the slave to be seized, but he 
threw himself at the feet of the Emperor, and begged him 
to interfere, and not suffer him to be devoured by the lam- 
preys. On examining into the matter, the Emperor, aston- 
ished at the barbarity of his favorite, caused the fish-ponds 
to be filled up. 

Respecting this fish, there is another use to Avhich the 
mouth or sucker is applied. The whole of its interior arch 
is studded with rows of teeth, each one of which, on a broad 
base, is furnished with one or two apparently reversed 
points, and these teeth which are most remote and con- 
cealed are larger than others, and more effectually crowded 
with these points. For simply biting they are useless, but 
when the breadth of the mouth is brought into contact with 
the surface of a fish on which the lamprey has laid hold, by 
producing a vacuum these roughly-pointed teeth are brought 
forward so as to be able to act on it by a circular motion ; 
and the limited space of the captive prey is thus rasped into 
a pulp and swallowed, until a hole is made which may, per- 
haps, penetrate to the bones, and from the torture of which 
the most strenuous exertion of the victim cannot deliver it. 
This is frequent on the mackerel and on other fishes, as the 
gurnard, coal-fish, cod and haddock. 

The "Mail-Cheeked or Gurnard group of fishes offer 



THE MAlL-rilKHKED GROUP OF FISUES. 279 

some very interesting subjeets for notice, including a con- 
siderable number of species, all characterized by sharp 
projecting cheeks, and heads cased in armor of bony plates, 
among which we may mention the Flying Gurnard, the Sea- 
Scorpion, and the Father-Lasher. 

The name " gurnard" is derived from the growling, grunt 
ing noise which these fishes make, by means of the throat 
and gills, when taken out of the water, and which has 
obtained for one species the name of "piper." The Romans 
used to call the latter " lyres," rather, perhaps, on account 
of their fancied resemblance to an ancient lyre, than to 
the very unmusical sound they emit. Many of the gurnards 
are distinguished by beauty of color. 

The New Zealand Gurnard, about eighteen inches in 
length, is a splendid fish : the upper part is brownish-red, 
the fins are very large and of an emerald green, broadly 
bordered with azure blue, and having an oval patch of vel- 
vety black beautifully relieved with snow-white spots. 

The Sea-Scorpion differs from its land namesake, the 
possessor of one solitary but dangerous tail-sting, the head 
of the fish being surrounded with goads and prickles, which 
render it a formidable enemy to contend with, by swelling 
out its cheeks and gill-covers to a large size, realizing Ovid's 
description of it, — 

" ScorpcEua's poison'd head, beset with spines;" 

excepting that the stings, beyond inflicting a sharp pain, 
are not venomous. Some of these animals are remarkable 
for their ugliness, and others exhibit very fine colors. They 
abound in the warm seas, and are often taken on the Atlan- 
tic shores, sometimes exceeding a foot in length. 

The Marine Sticklebacks, which are thus named from the 
spines which arm their back, ventral fins, and other parts, 
are inhabitants of the seas in cold and temperate regions, 
and are curious little animals, a kind of Liliputian warriors 



280 PUGNACITY OF THE MARINE STICKLEBACKS. 

armed at all points for warfare, protected at the sides by 
shell-like plates, and with spears that play terrible havoc 
among the Crustacea and small animals on which they feed. 
They are objects of peculiar interest from the beauty of 
their colors, which they change in a remarkable manner. 
They are excessively pugnacious and predatory in their 
habits, the larger species eating the smaller, and destroying 
the eggs and fry of fishes to a prodigious extent. An 
observer relates of the fifteen-spined stickleback, about six 
inches in length, — sometimes called the " sea-adder," — " that 
it keeps near rocks and stones clothed with sea-weeds, 
among which it takes refuge upon any alarm. Though less 
active than its brethern of the fresh water, it is scarcely less 
rapacious. On one occasion I noticed a specimen engaged 
in taking its prey from a clump of sea-weed, in doing which 
it assumed every posture between the horizontal and 
perpendicular, with the head downwards and upwards, 
thrusting its projecting snout into the crevices of the stems, 
and seizing its prey with a spring. Having taken this fish 
with a net, and transferred it to a vessel of water, in company 
with an eel three inches long, the latter was attacked and 
devoured head foremost ; not, indeed, altogether, for the eel 
was too large a morsel, so that the tail remained hanging out 
of the mouth, and it was obliged to disgorge the eel partly 
digested." 

A writer relates some interesting observations on the 
fighting propensities of these animals when confined in a tub 
of water : 

"A few at first are turned in, and swim about in a shoal, 
apparently examining their new habitation. Suddenly one 
will take possession of a corner of a tub, or, as it will 
sometimes happen, of the bottom, and will instantly com- 
mence an attack on its companions; and if any of these 
venture to oppose its rule, a regular and most furious battle 
ensues. The two combatants swim round and round each 




THE STICKLEBACKS— NEST-BUILDING FISHES. 



282 THE STICKLEBACKS NEST-BUILDING FISHES. 

other with the greatest rapidity, biting and endeavoring to 
pierce each other with their spines, which on these occa- 
sions are projected. I have witnessed a battle of this sort 
which lasted several minutes before the other would give 
way; and when one does submit, imagination can hardly 
conceive the vindictive fury of the conqueror, who, in the 
most persevering and unrelenting way, chases its rival from 
one part of the tub to another until fairly exhausted with 
fatigue. They also use their spines with such fatal effect 
that, incredible as it may appear, I have seen one, during 
a battle, absolutely rip an opponent quite open, so that it 
sank to the bottom and died. I have known three or four 
parts of the tub taken possession of by as many other 
little tyrants, who guard their territories with the strictest 
vigilance, and the slightest invasion invariably brings on 
a battle." 

It is pleasing to add for the honor of the sex that the 
females take no part in these ferocious proceedings; a 
redeeming feature in the belligerents, however, is the care 
which they take in building their nests and watching over 
the welfare of the females and their eggs. The reader may 
not have heard of nest-building fishes, and, indeed, although 
the ancients were acquainted with this instinct in some 
fishes, it was not until 1838 that modern naturalists proved 
this by the discovery of a stickleback nest. These ani- 
mals collect small pieces of straw or stick, with which the 
bottom of the nest is laid among water-plants, and these 
they cement together by a transpiration from their own 
bodies, which forms a thread through and round them in 
every conceivable direction. The thread is whitish, fine, 
and silken. The sides of the nest are made after the 
bottom. 

Not many fishes are yet known as nest-builders. The 
Goramy, a native of the China seas, forms at the breeding- 
season a nest by interlacing the stems and leaves of aquatic 



OTHER NEtST-BUILBINQ FISHES. 283 

grapes. Both male and female watch tliese nests for a 
month or more with great vigilance, violently driving away 
every other fish until the spaAvn is hatched. The Gobies or 
Sea-Gudgeons, have similar instincts. Many, however, are 
known not to construct nests. Salmon and others exhibit 
an approach to the nest-building habit, in making a place 
for their eggs in the sand or gravel. 

We must now notice the Fh^ng Gurnard, remarkably dis- 
tinguished from the others of the family to which it is allied 
by the great size of its pectoral fins, which are long enough, 
and their webs sufficiently broad, to sustain the fish in the 
air during its long flying leaps out of the water. These fins, 
however, are very diS"erent in appearance from those of the 
flying-fish {Exocetus, " fishes out of the water "), which be- 
longs to another family. The flying gurnard is an inhabi- 
tant of the warm seas ; one species is common in the Medi- 
teranean, and is sometimes fifteen inches in length. Its 
flight is said not to extend more than about forty yards, but 
it sometimes rises high enough to fall on the decks of large 
ships. At particular times, and especially on the approach 
of rough Aveather in the night, numbers of them may be 
seen by the phosporic light which they emit, making their 
passages in apparent streams of fire. 

Flying-fishes have the power of raising themselves out 
of the water, and continuing suspended in the air until their 
fins become dry, by which means they escape some of their 
marine enemies, such as the dolphin and many others. 

" So fishes rising from tlie main, 

Can soar with, moisten'd wings on bigb; 
The moisture dried, they sink again, 
And dip their wings again to fly." 

But they run the gauntlet of the long-winged sea birds, 
which seize them in the air; and between themselves and 
their swimming and flying enemies, they furnish one of 



284 



FLYING FISHES. 



the most singular sights in the warm seas of the tropics. 
One species of the Exocetus sometimes visits the English 
coasts, and are said to leap more than two hundred yards 
in distance, and upwards of twenty feet in height. 
Although these fishes are called " flying," their 
action has more resemblance to a long and vigorous leap 
tlian the flight of birds. Birds have an elegant, fearless, 
and independent motion ; while that of the fish is hurried, 
stiff, and awkward, more like a creature requiring support 
for a short period. 




THE FLYING FISH. 



STRA^^GE SOUNDS A T SEA 



2S5 




Very curious are the statements regarding what have 
been called "musical" fish, but how far such a title is war- 
ranted is doubtful. It is known that many fishes, notwith- 
standing their being characterized as mute, are remarkable 
for giving utterance to a peculiar sound called *' drumming." 
This is very perceptible in the famous Maigre of the Medi- 
terranean, the Umhrina of the Romans, a fish which swims in 
groups, and often utters a low bellowing sound beneath the 
water, Avhich is heard from a depth of one hundred and 
twenty feet, and is rendered stronger by placing the ear 
upon the gunwale of the boat. 

Lieutenant White of the U. S. Navy, in his " Voyage to 
the China Seas," published in 1824, relates that being at the 
mouth of the Cambodia, his crew and himself were ex- 
tremely astonished by hearing certain unaccountable sounds 
from beneath and around the vessel. These were various, 
like the bass notes of an organ, the sound of bells, the croak- 
ing of frogs, and a pervading twang which the imagination 
might have attributed to the vibrations of some enormous 
harp. For a time the mysterious music swelled upon them, 
and finally formed a universal chorus all around ; but as the 
vessel ascended the river, the sounds diminished in strength, 
and soon altogether ceased. 

Humboldt was witness to a similar fact in the South Sea, 
but without suspecting the cause. Towards seven in the 
evening the whole crew were astounded by an extraordinary 
noise, which resembled that of drums which were beating in 
the air. It was at first attributed to the breakers. Speedily 
it was heard in the vessel, and especially towards the poop. 
It was like a boiling, the noise of the air which escapes 



286 MUSICAL FISHES. 

from fluid in ebullition. The sailors began to fear there 
was some leak in the vessel. It was heard unceasingly in 
all parts of the vessel, and finally, about nine o'clock, it 
ceased altogether. 

It would form a curious matter of research to ascertain 
by what organs these sounds are produced at so great a depth, 
and without communication with the exterior air. The 
illustrious naturalist further remarks that such of the Scicen- 
idce (the Maigre family) as are the most remarkable for the 
faculty in question, having the swimming-bladder very large 
and thick, furnished with extremely strong muscles, and are, 
in several species, provided with more or less complicated 
prolongations, which penetrate between the intervals of the 
ribs. But what renders the phenomenon more unaccounta- 
ble is that these swimming-bladders have no communication 
with the intestinal canal, nor, in general, with any part of 
the exterior. 

The interpreter belonging to Lieutenant "White's ship 
stated that the marine music which had so much surprised 
the crew was produced by fishes of a flattened oval form, 
and which possess the faculty of adhering to various bodies 
by their mouths. This fish might have been the Pogonia, 
which produces much more sound than any of the other 
Maigre tribe to which it belongs, on which account it is 
sometimes called the " drum-fish." Schoefif reports of them 
that they will assemble round the keel of a vessel at anchor, 
and serenade the crew. Some of the species attain a large 
size — one hundred pounds or more — and are excellent for 
the table. 

Sir James Emerson Tennant, in his account of Ceylon, 
states : " In the evening, when the moon had risen, I took a 
boat and accompanied the fishermen to the spot where mu- 
sical sounds were said to be heard issuing from the bottom 
of a lake, and which the natives supposed to proceed from 
some fish peculiar to the locality. I distinctly heard the 



MUSICAL FL'SIIES. 



287 



sounds in question. They came up from the water like the 
gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a 
wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a wet finger. It was 
not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny sounds, each 
clear and distinct in itself, the sweetest treble mingling with 
the deepest bass. They came evidently and sensibly from 
the depths of the lake, and appeared to be produced by 
mollusca, and not by fish." 

Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some 
places on the western coast of India, especially in the har- 
bor of Bombay. 




Among the foremost of queer fish is the Sea-Devil, a 
most inharmonious name, but which seems to have been given 
to it on account of its hideous, strange, and uncouth appear- 
ance. A species of this extraordinary fish of the Skate fam- 
ily frequents Kingston harbor in Jamaica, where they are 
seen floating on the surface, or swimming just beneath the 
water. An interesting account is given by Lieutenant La- 



288 THE SEA-DEVIL. 

mont of the escape of a devil-fish and the capture of an- 
other at Port Royal. The lieutenant had been called to the 
beach by seeing a multitude assembled to look at one of 
these fishes floating past. His curiosity turned to surprise 
when he saw, flapping on the water, about twenty yards 
from the shore, a large dark-colored mass, whose shape 
and size he could not immediately determine, but which 
seemed prodigiously big beyond anything he could conceive, 
since it so much exceeded all he had ever seen or heard of 
fishes. The boats were started off to pursue it, and it was 
harpooned, but no sooner was the monster struck than it 
made off with amazing velocity, towing the boat of the har- 
pooner after him. A succession of boats now came up. 
These strung themselves on to the harpooner one after an- 
other, striking each a harpoon as the boats came up. They 
consecutively formed a long line, but such was the force of 
the fish that all the boats were drawn out ten miles to sea. 
Night was drawing on. To bring the chase to a close, an- 
other harpoon was struck into the monster, when it made one 
convulsive effort to get awaj^ and broke loose, carrying 
away eight or ten harpoons and pikes, leaving every one as- 
tonished at the success of its escape. 

Another devil-fish was not so fortunate, and Lieutenant 
Lamont gives the history of its capture Avithin the harbor, 
which the animal traversed up and down, dragging with 
such velocity the boat from which it had been struck, that 
the other boats following could not overtake the fish. Its 
struggles were tremendous, plunging into the midst of the 
boats that at length surrounded it, darting from the surface 
to the bottom of the water, and then rising swiftly, dashing 
the foam about on every side and rolling round and round to 
extricate itself from the poles and lines. Unable to get 
away, it swam off, towing all the boats after it, and then 
laid itself at the bottom of the water. From this position 
the stretch and strain of all the boats' crews could not move 



CAPTURE OF A SEA-DEVIL. 289 

it. Slackening their eftbrts gradually, the monster rose 
again to the surface, when a shower of musket-balls and 
pikes riddled it through. Until this capture was effected, 
it was believed that a sea-devil -was beyond the might of 
human art and strengh. The dimensions of this fish were 
not more than half that of the common size, being only 
fifteen feet in Avidth. A man, however, entered the mouth 
with ease, the space being two feet and a half. The weight 
of the fish was so great, that, with difficulty, forty men with 
two lines attached to it dragged it along the ground. 

A devil-fish taken at Barbadoes required seven yoke of 
oxen to draw it. 

In the account of the fish taken in Delaware Bay (remarks 
the Hon. Richard Hill in an interesting article on the subject 
of the devil-fish), it was stated that drawing a boat after it 
with the celerity of a whale when harpooned, it caused a 
wave to be raised on each side the trough of the sea, several 
feet higher than the boat ; that during the scuffle the vast 
fins of the fish lashed the sea with such vehemence that the 
spray rose to the height of thirty feet, and rained dropping 
water around to the distance of fifty feet, and yet the meas- 
urement of this fish was only half of those generally seen, 
being only eighteen feet in breadth. Three pairs of oxen, one 
horse, and twenty-two men, all pulling together, with the 
surges of the Atlantic to help, could barely convey the mon- 
ster to the dry beach. 

The monstrous skate said by Pdre Labat to have been 
observed by the natives of Guadaloupe, and described as 
fourteen feet broad, and ten feet from the head to the com- 
mencement of the tail, with the tail fifteen feet more, alto- 
gether twenty-five feet long, was no doubt a kindred species 
of the devil-fish ; and the monster spoken of by the early 
voyagers as suffocating the pearl-divers in the water, and 
known by the name of Manta, was a similar animal. 

Surprising stories are related of these fishes. Le Vaillant 



290 THE FISHING FROQ. 

speaks of three that he saw in the Atlantic — one so large 
that it seemed fifty or sixty feet wide ; they all three carried 
each on his horns a white fish about half a yard long, which 
appeared to be stationed there on duty as sentinels, to keep 
watch for the safety of the " devils," and to guide their 
movements: that these sentinels passed over their backs 
when they rose too high, and repassed under them until 
they descended deeper, disappearing and being seen no 
more for a time, but reappearing and resuming their post as 
sentinels when the fish again ascended to the surface. 

Among other "queer " fish, is the Fishing Frog, or Ang- 
ler, belonging to the " Wristed " family (so named from the 
prolongation of the wrist-bones, forming a kind of arm, sup- 
porting the pectoral fin on a kind of hand), and one of the 
most extraordinary and repulsive-looking animals that 
inhabit the deep. 

Let the reader imagine a gigantic tadpole blown out to 
the size of a porpoise, with an immense head, and a mouth 
extending on either side far beyond the width of the body, 
opening to view a capacious den, shagged throughout with 
hooked and mobile teeth, a triple tier in the upper, and 
an equal number in the lower jaw, the palate, tongue 
fauces, pharynx, and far down the throat, glistening with a 
like display of ivory fangs ; unfishy orbs, resembling those 
of the " star-gazer " (the " priest-fish," so named from the 
whites of its eyes, looking constantly heavenward), planted 
high in the forehead; a scaleless skin, which is reeking 
cold, and clammy ; its surface, from near the tail to the cor- 
ners of the mouth, as crawling with long wriggling caruncu- 
lated (fleshy) appendages, like so many worms in agony ; 
the flesh " boggy " to the touch, save where it is padded out 
with an enormously extended liver, or just over the branchial 
(apertures for the passage of water from the gills) cavity; 
a pantry constantly replenished with provisions ; add to all 
these a large pair of Caliban-hand-like fins, planted close 



VORACITY OF THE FISHING FROG. 291 

under the throat; a fierce, malevolent aspect, and an 
ungainly mode of wallowing, rather than swimming, through 
the brine, and it will be apparent, even from this very im- 
perfect sketch, that such a fish scarecrow could not fail to 
arrest attention, even had their been no other claim to 
regard than his portentous ugliness. 

Of its boldness and voracity many anecdotes are related. 
A fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and whilst drawing it up 
he felt a heavier weight attach itself to his line. This 
appeared to be a frog-fish of a large size, which he com- 
pelled to quit its hold by a heavy blow on the head, leaving 
its prey still attached to the hook. In another instance one 
of these fishes had seized a conger eel which had taken the 
hook ; but after the latter had been engulfed in the enor- 
mous jaws, and perhaps in the stomach, it struggled 
through the gill-aperture of its captor, and in that situation 
both were drawn up together. 

An incident is related of its swallowing a large ball of 
cork employed as a buoy to a butler or deep-sea line. 

It has also been stated that when this fish is captured in 
a net, its rapacious appetite is not in the least diminished, 
but it generally devours some of its fellow-prisoners. 

The sea-frog, as it can live longer out of water than most 
other fish, is said to pass some of its time on shore. The 
naturalist, Rondolet, tells a curious story of one being found 
on land, holding a fox fast by the leg. The cunning quad- 
ruped, outreached for once by a fish, had put his foot into 
the mouth of the sea-frog, who, instantly closing upon it, 
held it fast as in a trap till next morning, when Rondolet 
surprised them in this strange position. 

The name of " angler " given to this singular fish is 
derived from its habit of crouching close to the ground, and 
stirring up with its fins the sand or mud. In the obscurity 
thus produced the animal moves its appendages, tentacles 
or feelers, in various directions, by way of attracting as a 



292 THE SAW-FISH. 

bait, and the small fishes approaching to examine or seize 
them are soon conveyed to the capacious jaws of the angler. 
Nature has added to this provivsion for obtaining food, inas- 
much as a filament shooting up close to the upper lip of the 
fish carries upon its extremity a little membrane or flag, of 
brilliant metallic lustre, which, it is supposed, the angler 
uses as a means of alluring its prey; and the relative posi- 
tion of the flag, the eye, and the mouth, favor such a pur- 
pose. The upper part of the body is brown, inclining to 
dusky, and the lower parts are white. The sea-frog is com- 
mon in the Northern Ocean and the Mediterranean ; it is 
also taken sometimes on the British coasts. 

In the chapter on the " Monarchs of the Ocean." we 
have alluded to the Saw-fish and the Sword-fish as formid- 
able enemies to the whale ; but is not merely on their fel- 
low-inhabitants of the deep that these powerful fishes exer- 
cise their aggressive propensities. Some singular instances 
are related of their attacking even the "wooden walls" that 
glide tranquilly through their watery domain. 
Captain Wilson, of the Halifax packet, states: 
" Being in the Gulf of Paria, in the ship's cutter, I fell 
in with a Spanish canoe, manned by two men, then in great 
distress, who requested me to save their lines and canoe, 
with which request I immediately complied, and going 
alongside for that purpose, I discovered that they had got 
a large saw-fish entangled in their turtle-net, which was 
towing them out to sea, and but for my assistance they must 
have lost either their canoe or their net, or perhaps both, 
which were their only means of subsistence. Having only 
two boys with me at the time in the boat, I desired them 
to cut the fish awa}^, which they refused to do. I then took 
the bight of the net from them, and with the joint endeav- 
ors of themselves and my boat's crew, we succeeded in 
hauling up the net, and to our astonishment, after great 
exertions, we raised the "saw " of the fish about eight feet 



VIOLENCE OF TUE SA W-FISE. . 293 

above the surface of the sea. It was a fortunate circum- 
stance that the fish came up with the belly towards the 
bout, or it would have cut the boat in two. 

"I had abandoned all idea of taking the fish, until, by- 
great good luck, it made towards the land, when 1 made 
another attempt, and having about three hundred feet of 
rope in the boat, we succeeded in making a running bowline- 
knot round the saw of the fish, and this we fortunately made 
fast on shore. When the fish found itself secured, it plunged 
so violently that I could not prevail on anyone to go near it ; 
the appearance it presented was truly awful. I immediately 
went alongside the Lima packet, Captain Singleton, and got 
the assistance of all his ship's crew. By the time they 
arrived, the fish was less violent. We hauled upon the net 
again, in which it was still entangled, and got another three 
hundred feet of line made fast to the saw, and attempted to 
haul it toward the shore ; but although mustering thirty 
Jiands, we could not move it an inch. By this time the ne- 
groes belonging to Mr. Danglad's estate came flocking to our 
assistance, making together about one hundred in number, 
with the Spaniards. We then hauled on both ropes for 
nearly the day, before the fish became exhausted. On 
endeavoring to raise the fish it became most desperate, 
sweeping with its sword from side to side, so that we were 
compelled to get strong ropes to prevent it from cutting us 
to pieces. After that, one of the Spaniards got on its back, 
and at great risk cut through the joint of the tail, when ani- 
mation was completely suspended. It was then measured, 
and found to be twenty-two feet long and eight feet broad, 
and weighed nearly five tons." 

An East Indiaman was attacked by a sword-fish with such 
prodigious force as to drive its "snout" completely through 
the bottom of the ship, and must have been destroyed by tlie 
leak had not the animal been killed by the violence of its 
own exertions, and the sword remaining imbedded in the 



294 PRODIGIOUS STRENQTH OF THE SWORD-FISH. 

wood. A fragment of this vessel, witli the sword fixed 
firmly in it, is preserved as a curiosity in the British 
Museum. 

Several instances of a similar character have occurred, 
and one formed the subject of an action in the courts of law 
so recently as 1868, brought against an insurance company 
for damages sustained by a vessel from the attack of one of 
these fishes. It seems the Dreadnought, a first-class mercan- 
tile ship, left a foreign port in perfect repair, and on the 
afternoon of the third day a " monstrous creature" was seen 
sporting among the waves, and lines and hooks were thrown 
overboard to capture it. All efforts to this effect, however, 
failed : the fish got away, and in the night-time the vessel 
was reported to be dangerously leaking. The captain was 
compelled to return to the harbor he had left, and the dam- 
age Avas attributed to a sword-fish, twelve feet long, which 
had assailed the ship below water-line, perforated her 
planks and timbers, and thus imperilled her existence on 
the ocean. 

Professor Owen, the distinguished naturalist, was called 
to give evidence on this trial as to the probability of such 
an occurrence, and he related several instances of the pro- 
digious strength of the " sword." It strikes with the ac- 
cumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers; its 
velocity is equal to that of a swivel shot, and it is as dan- 
gerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile would be. 

Oppian describes the sword-fish when attacked : 

" He summons to his instant aid 
The oft-tried prowess of liis trusty blade ; 
Selects some boat, and runs his puissant sword 
Full many an incli within the fatal board." 

In remarking upon beautiful fishes, it would be quite out 
of the limits of a small publication like the present to 
attempt more than a bare mention of a few species of the 



BEAUTIFUL FISHES. 



295 



ocean inhabitants which possess, in a special degree, the 
attributes to which this term may be applied. Among the 
most prominent of beautiful fishes is the Dolphin, wdiich, 
however, belongs to an extensive family, including the por- 
poise, grampus, &c., and animals which, on account of their 
^arge size, are commonly called whales. 




SKATES. 

There are, however, many other fish that change color 
before they die. We have seen species of the cat-fish 
change from a warm and glowing smalt durin<:r the last 



296 G HANGING COLORS OF THE DOLPHIN. 

pangs to a dull leaden hue, losing at the same time the deli- 
cate pinky tinge of the sides and abdomen. The common 
sucking-fish, from a brown, bright, shining, blackish color, 
changes even in the water to a leaden hue, and as it dies 
assumes a tan-color, which grows paler by degrees and turns 
to a dingy white. 

When swimming near the surface of the water, and glit- 
tering beneath the light of a cloudless sky, the dolphins 
appear clothed in the richest gold, and to have the starry 
lustre of the topaz and sapphire. Two species have been 
named, from the variety and vividness of their tints, the 
^ sea-peacock " and the " blue-fish." 

The true dolphin has the snout prolonged into a rather 
slender beak, whence the French have applied to it the 
name of " the goose of the sea." It was very differently 
regarded and designated by the ancients, who looked upon 
it as a sacred fish, and dedicated it to Appollo, who was 
worshipped at Delphi with dolphins for his symbols. The 
name is given to one of the fairest provinces of France — 
Dauphiny, from which the heir-apparent of the throne form- 
erly derived his title of " Dauphin." 

Wondrously beautiful, indeed, are these gay inhabitants 
of the seas, especially when seen playing and springing from 
the water, when they assume the curved shape that is not 
natural to them, but which old painters and sculptors have 
always given them. 

"Upon tlie swelling waves the dolphins show 
Their bending backs, then swiftly darting go, 
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies throw." 

They are, however, very voracious animals, and are said 
to prey not only on other fishes, but their own species. The 
flying-fish in particular comes in for a share of their pursuit. 
Captain Basil Hall gives a vivid discription of their opera- 
tions : 



DOLPHINS IN PURSUIT OF FLYING FISHES. 297 

" Shortly after observing a cluster of flying-fish rise out 
of the water, we discoyered two or three dolphins ranging 
past the ship in all their beauty, and watched with some 
anxiety to see one of those aquatic chases of which our 
friends, the Indiamen, had been telling such wonderful 
stories. We had not long to wait, for the ship, in her pro- 
gress through the water, soon put up another shoal of these 
little things, which, as the others had done, took their 
flight directly to windward. A large dolphin, which had 
been keeping company with us abresst of the weather gang- 
way, at the depth of two or three fathoms, and, as usual, 
glistening most beautifully in the sun, no sooner detected 
our poor dear little friends take wing than he turned his 
head towards them and, darting to the surface, leaped from 
the water with a velocity little short, as it seemed, of a can- 
non-ball. But, although the impetus with which he shot 
himself into the air gave him an initial velocity greatly 
exceeding that of the flying-fish, the start which his fated 
prey had got enabled them to keep ahead of him for a con- 
siderable time. 

" The length of the dolphin's first spring could not be 
less than ten yards, and after he fell we could see him glid- 
ing like lightning through the water for a moment, when he 
again arose and shot forwards with considerably greater 
velocity than at first, and, of course, to a still greater dis- 
tance. In this manner the merciless pursuer seemed to 
stride along with fearful rapidity, while his brilliant coat 
sparkled and flashed in the sun quite splendidly. As he fell 
headlong on the water at the end of each huge leap, a series 
of circles were sent far over the still surface, which lay as 
smooth as a mirror. 

" The group of wretched flying-fish, thus hotly pursued, 
at length dropped into the sea ; but we were rejoiced to 
observe that they merely touched the top of the swell, and 
scarcely sank in it ; at least, they instantly set off again in a 



298 THE DOLPHIN A SEA-SPORTSMAN. 

fresh and more vigorous flight. It waj particularly inter- 
esting to observe that the direction they now took was 
quite different from the one in which they had set out, im- 
plying but too obviously that they had detected their fierce 
enemy, who was following them with giant steps on the 
waves, and now gaining rapidly upon them. His terrific 
pace was, indeed, two or three times as swift as theirs, poor 
little things! 

" The greedy dolphin, however, was fully as quick-sighted 
as the flying-fish which were trying to elude him, for when- 
ever they varied their flight in the smallest degree, he lost 
not the tenth part of a second in shaping a new course, so 
as to cut off the chase ; whilst they, in a manner really not 
unlike that of the hare, doubled more than once on their 
pursuer. But it was soon too plainly to be seen that the 
strength and confidence of the flying-fish were fast ebbing. 
Their flights became shorter and shorter, and their course 
more fluttering and uncertain, while the enormous leaps of 
the dolphin appeared to grow more vigorous at each bound. 
Eventually, indeed, we could see, or fancied that we could 
see, that this skilful sea-sportsman arranged all his springs 
with such an assurance of success that he contrived to fall 
at the end of each just under the very spot on which the 
exhausted flying-fish were about to drop. Sometimes this 
catastrophe took place at too great a distance for us 
to see from the deck exactly what happened; but on 
our mounting high into the rigging, we may be said to have 
been in at the death, for then we could discover that the 
unfortunate little creatures, one after another, either popped 
right into the dolphin's jaws as they lighted on the water, or 
were snapped up instantly afterwards. 

" It was impossible not to take an active part with our 
pretty little friends of the weaker side, and accordingly we 
very speedily had our revenge. The middies and the sailors, 
delighted with the chance, rigged out a dozen or twenty 



TUK MACKEREL. 299 

lilies from the jibbooin-end and spritsail-yard-arms, with 
hooks baited merely with bits of tin, the glitter of which 
resembles so much that of the body and wings of the flying- 
fish that many a proud dolphin, making sure of a delicious 
morsel, leaped in rapture at the glittering prize." 

The dolphin, however, in turn becomes the prey of other 
fishes, and especially of the Fox-Shark, or Sea-Fox as it is 
sometimes called, a genus of sharks containing only one 
known species, belonging to the Mediterranean Sea, and the 
Atlantic, and occasionally seen on English coasts. This 
powerful fish attains a length of thirteen feet, including the 
tail-fin, which is remarkably long, nearly half the dimensions 
of the animal, and which, as a weapon of offence, is very for- 
midable. The furious lashing of this appendage has obtained 
for this fish the popular name of " thresher." A whole herd 
of dolphins wall take flight at the first splash of this tail, 
and even the grampus, the largest of the dolphin family, 
and, it is said, a formidable adversary of the whale, comes 
off badly in an encounter with the fox-shark. 

The numerous and interesting Mackerel family include 
many species remarkable for rich coloring. The common 
Mackerel itself, which is described in the chapter on " Meth- 
ods of Fishing," is a very beautiful fish, with its brilliant 
blue and green tints, besides its elegant form. The Dory, 
or John Dory as it is popularly called, is said to derive its 
name from the golden tint that prevails over it when taken 
from the water; jaune in French being "yellow," and (/ore, 
"golden." Along the shores of the Mediterranean, where 
this fish abounds, it is called among other names "St. Peter's 
Fish," from a legend that the apostle obtained from it the 
coin to pay the tribute mone}^ and that the impression of 
his two fingers marks the species to the present day ; a dis- 
tinction, however, which is claimed also for the haddock. 
The dory is very common on some parts of the Atlantic 
coasts. The prevailing color of the body (which is oval) is 



300 THE GLOBT OF THE MACKEREL FAMILY. 

an olive-brown tinged with yellow, reflecting in difi'erent 
lights blue, gold, and white. When the fish is taken, the 
varying tints of these beautiful colors pass in rapid succes- 
sion over the body. Though flat in form, the fish SAvims 
erect, and both surfaces being thus equally exposed to the 
light, are alike of a coppery hue. 

The Boar-fish, a relative of the dory, is of inferior preten- 
sions as regards shape and color, the mouth having some 
resemblance to the snout of a hog, which doubtless originated 
the name. The eyes are very large and prominent, and the 
body of a pale carmine color, with orange bands on the 
back. 

But the glory of the Mackerel famil}'-, at least for splen- 
dor of appearance, is the Opah, or King-fish, an inhabitant 
of the seas of high northern latitudes, and occasionally found 
on the British coasts, sometimes five feet long and one hun- 
dred and fifty pounds in weight. The colors are, indeed, 
magnificent. The whole back is of a steel blue, which, on 
the flanks, becomes rich green, reflecting in different lights 
purple and gold, and a lovely rose-color on the abdomen. 
Numerous oval spots, some milk-white, others of a beautiful 
silvery lustre, adorn this groundwork, while small ones orna- 
ment the head. The gill-covers are very brilliant, and the 
iris of its large eye is of a beautiful golden color : all the fins 
are vermilion. 

Among marine members of the perch family, we may 
mention the Red Mullet as very beautiful in its delicate rose- 
color, striped with yellow; which colors, however, soon fade 
after death. 

"On fish a different fate attends, nor reach they long the shore 
Ere fade their hues like rainbow tints, and soon their beauty's o'er." 

It was one of these mullets which was so celebrated among 
the Romans for the excellency of its flesh, its great beauty, 
and the extravagant prices it brought. In the days of 



MULLE2\S AND 8EA-P I'JIiCIIES. 301 

Horace this fish was valued in proportion to its size, not bo- 
cause the hirger were better, but (as happens in the fashion- 
able world frequently in our own time) because they were 
procured with greater difficulty. Enormous sums were paid 
for these fishes. Juvenal tells us, 

" The lavish 
Six tliousand pieces for a mullet gave, 
A sesterce for eacli pound." 

amounting altogether to a sum of nearly two hundred and 
fifty dollars of our money, while, according to Pliny, a con- 
sul named Asinius Celer gave a sum equal to nearly four hun- 
dred dollars of our currency for a single fish of this kind; 
an infatuation we can only feel paralleled by the " tulip 
mania " of former days. Neither did the extravagance of 
these people end even here, for Senaca informs us they were 
so exceedingly fastidious about the freshness of this fish 
that, according to the luxurious habits of those days, rich 
epicures kept aquariums in their dining-rooms, so that the 
fish could be taken out alive under the table: one reason 
besides the freshness of the fish, being, that the guests 
might see them change their colors when they were dying. 
In these feasts they revelled over the expiring mullet, while 
the bright red color of health passed through various 
shades of purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually 
ebbed and convulsions put an end to the revolting specta- 
cle. They also put these devoted fishes into crystal vessels 
filled with water, over a slow fire upon their tables, a refine- 
ment of cruelty which required an " imperial " Humane Soci- 
ety to see after. 

The Basse or Sea-Perch is an elegant fish, with chaste 
and pleasing colors, the upper parts gray with bluish tints 
shading into silvery white ; tolerably common on our coasts 
during the summer. The armed Enoplessiis, another mem- 
ber of the Perch family, very abundant in the New Holland 



302 BEA UTIFUL MEMBERS OF THE PERCH FAMIL Y. 

seas, is remarkable for its chaste coloring, the ground-shade 
being of a silvery gray, relieved by eight narrow black 
bands, which either entirely or in part surround the body. 
The fins have a yellowish tint. It is about eight or ten 
inches in length. The Two-banded Diploprion, an inhabi- 
tant of the coast of Java, also claims the same relationship ; 
the colors are a fine reddish-yellow, relieved by two cross- 
ing bands of black; length of the fish about six inches. 
Another genus is the Mediteranean Apogon, about the same 
length as the last-named fish, but of far more brilliant colors. 
The prevailing color is of a crimson-red, paler on the lower 
parts, with three deep black markings. The whole surface 
of the body is covered over with small black spots or dots. 

To the same extensive family belong the Lettered Sera- 
nus, a beautifully-marked fish, found on the coasts of the 
Mediterranean. The general ground-tint of the skin is a 
reddish-orange, sometimes inclining to olive, and shading 
to a pale tint on the lower parts. The back is banded, as 
in the Perch, with dull brown bands, but the most showy 
marks are the narrow irregular lines of rich blue which run 
On the nose below the eyes and on the cheeks, which assume 
the form of written characters (hence the name "lettered"). 
The ground color of the fins is gray, spotted sometimes 
with reddish-orange, and sometimes with purple. The 
Spined Seranus, belonging also to the same warm seas, is of a 
brilliant red or scarlet, which on the sides assumes a golden 
tint, and on the belly becomes pale or almost silvery. Upon the 
sides of the head are three bands of golden yellow, and on 
the forehead are bands of bronzed green: the fins are 
tinted with red and yellow. This fish in length is generally 
from five to seven inches. 

The Beautiful Plectropoma, also of the Perch family, mer- 
its its name from the lovely colors it exhibits. This fish in- 
habits the tropical seas, and some species are unusually 
lovely. The ground-tint of the body is olive, crossed by six 



CURIOUS lySTINCT OF THE ARCHER FI61IES. 303 

bands of olive black. A line of blue surrounds the orbit; 
the fins are tinted with olive and yellow, the pectorals 
sometimes with a delicate rose-color. This fish is about 
four or five inches in length. A formidable rival in point of 
beauty, however, is the the One-spotted 3Iesoprion, of the 
same family, a native of our seas, and as remarkable for the 
eleg"ance of its form (length about fourteen inches) as the 
richness and lustre of the coloring. The back, upper part 
of the head, and cheeks are of a rich steel blue, the lower 
part of the cheeks and sides of a rich rose-color, and the 
belly silvery; the whole body is striped with seven or eight 
bands on a rose-colored ground, and the others are gamboge 
yellow. The coloring is subject to a considerable variety 
in tint, from golden orange to silvery. The Golden-tailed 
3Iesoprioii is of similar richness. 

What is called the " Scaly-finned " family of fishes is a 
large one, containing about one hundred and fifty species, 
most of which, however, frequent the Indian and Polynesian 
seas, and are conspicuous for their splendid coloring. It 
has been observed that if the " feathered tribes of the warm 
regions are bedecked with the most brilliant and gorgeous 
hues, the neighboring oceans contain myriads of the finny 
race which in this respect excel them. Upon the'first of 
three groups of this family especially, nature has most pro- 
fusely lavished these splendid ornaments. The purple of 
the iris, the richness of the rose, the azure blue of the sky. 
the darkest velvet black, and many other hues are seen com- 
mingled with metallic lustre over the pearly surface of the 
resplendent group, which, habitually frequenting the rocky 
shores at no great depth of water, are seen to sport in the 
sunbeams as if to exhibit to advantage their gorgeous 
dress. 

In the chapter on "Submarine Scenery," we have described 
the Ghoetodon (signifying I contain a tooth), one of the most 
beautiful of this family of fishes. Another animal ranged 



THE RIBAND-SHAPED FISH. 305 

Aviththe " scaly-iiiis," is the Archer, a fish about six or eight 
inches in length, wliich, when it perceives a fly or otlier 
winged insect hovering over the surface or settled on a 
twig, propels against it with considerable force a drop of 
liquid from its mouth, so as to drive it into the water ; in 
attacking an insect at rest, it usually approaches cautiously, 
and very deliberately takes its aim. It is said to be an amuse- 
ment with the Chinese in Java to keep this fish in confinement 
in a large vessel of water, in order that they may witness its 
dexterity. They fasten a fly or other insect to the side of 
the vessel, when the fish aims at it with such precision 
that it rarely misses its mark. This Japanese fish is called 
the Chelmon rostratus. Another genus — the Toxotus jacu- 
lata — shoots its watery deluge to the height of three or four 
feet, and strikes Avith unerring aim the insect attacked. 

The family of " Riband-shaped Fish " includes the most 
singular and extraordinary fishes ir. creation. The form of 
the bod}' when compared to fishes better known is much 
like that of the eel, the length being in the same propor- 
tion as the breadth; but then it is so much compressed 
that these creatures have obtained the popular name of 
"riband-fish," "lath" or "deal-fish.' The body, indeed, is 
often not thicker, except in its middle, than is a sword ; 
and being covered with the richest silver, and of great 
length, the undulating motion of these fishes in the sea 
must be resplendent and beautiful beyound measure. But 
these wonders of the mighty deep are almost hidden from 
the eye of man. These metoric fishes appear to live in 
the greatest depths, and it is only at long intervals, and 
after a succession of tempests, that a solitary individual 
is cast on the shore, with its delicate body torn and mu- 
tilated by the elements on the rocks. 

The family of the " Wrasses," or " Old Wives of the Sea" 
— as they are commonly called — include some very beautiful 
species, and are distinguished by their elegant, regular, and 



306 THE OLD WIVES OF THE SEA. 

oval form. The Rainbow is remarkable for the beauty of 
its coloring", as the name would imply: it is the ornament of 
the markets on the coast of the Mediterranean, for the 
various colors of the fish do not yield in their brilliancy and 
beauty to the most lovely fishes of tropical seas. The sum- 
mit of the head and back is of a rich brown, mixed with blue 
and red; beneath this brilliant tint there is a broad band, 
with a denticulated margin of orange red; below this band, 
and at the origin of the gill-ray, the middle portion of the 
side is colored by a deep blue band. This marking extends 
to near the tail in a band of ultramarine blue. An ultra- 
marine streak of the lovliest hue arises at the angle of the 
mouth, crosses the cheek, and is prolonged in fainter hues 
along the inferior border of the deep blue marking of the 
side. The dorsal fin is of an olive-color, mixed with red, 
having the margin light blue. 

The Parrot-fish belongs to this numerous family, deriving 
its name partly from a fancied resemblance in their jaws to 
a parrot's bill. These fishes are remarkable for their bril- 
liant colors, some of them being of wonderful splendor. One 
species, found in the Mediterranean, is supposed to be the 
famous Scarus of the ancients, of whose ruminating powers 
extraordinary accounts have been related. 

To the family of the pipe-fishes belong the Hippocampus, 
or Sea-horse, which is, perhaps, more remarkable for the 
singularity of its form — the upper parts having some resem- 
blance to the head and neck of a horse in miniture — than 
for any ornament or color, although these are not wanting. 
The singularity of this fish is in the shape and disposition 
of the plates on the tail, which are such as to admit of its 
being easily curved inwards, and by the aid of which the 
animal twists itself around the stems of marine plants, wait- 
ing in that position with its head free, ready to dart at any 
passing object which it desires to make its prey. 



TUB GOLD AND SILVER FISH OF NORWA Y. 307 

For beauty of coloring, irrespective of shape and other 
repulsive peculiarities, we may mention the Ckimoera, or 
Rabbit-fish, an animal little known, as it frequents the deep 
recesses of the ocean, and is only an occasional visitant of 
our coasts. In Norway, however, it is more common, and 
receives the name of " gold and silver fish," from the 
resplendent colors which form the ground of the body, set 
off by dark spots. It is also called by the Norwegians the 
" sea-rat," from the form of the tail, and " king-fish," from a 
thready filament, terminating in a tuft, which is found on 
the head of the male. The colors are very beautiful : the 
upper parts dark brown, varied with yellowish-brown 
and silvery; the lower parts bright silver ; the eyes large, 
green, and brilliantly lustrous, so much so, that the Medi- 
terranean fishermen called this fish the "cat." The form of 
the fish does not correspond with the vivid colors we have 
mentioned, the repulsive shape of the head, and the rat-like 
tail, giving it an appearance somewhat allied to sea- 
monsters. 

In concluding these brief notices of a few out of the mul- 
titude of beautiful fishes which give a charm and lovliness 
to the element in which they live, we would have the 
reader remember that these works of a beneficent Creator 
are intended to raise our thoughts in reverent admiration 
to that Holy Being, who made all things for our comfort and 
delight : 

*' The inhabitant of the waters, generally speaking, knows 
no attachments, has no language, no affections ; feelings of 
conjugality or paternity are not acknowledged by him; 
ignorant of the art of constructing an asylum, in danger he 
seeks shelter beneath the rocks or in the darkness of the 
deep ; his life is silent and monotonous. The cravings of 
Toracity alone influence his instinct sufiiciently to teach him 
some kind of obedience in his movements to external signs. 
A.lthough so small a share of enjoyment and intelligence is 



308 



SPLENDOR OF CERTAIN FItiHEti. 



their lot, fish are, nevertheless, adorned by the hand of 
Nature with every kind of beauty : variety in their forms, 
elegance in their proportions, diversity and vivacity in their 
colors — nothing is wanted to attract the attention of man, 
and indeed it seems as if that attention was the principal 
object Nature wished to excite. The splendor of every metal, 
the blaze of every gem, glitter on their surface; iridescent 
colors, breaking and reflecting in bands, in spots, in angles, 
or in undulating lines, ahvays regular, symmetrical, gradua- 
ting or contrasting, but always with admirable effect and 
harmony, flashing over their sides : for whom else have they 
received such gifts, they who at most can barely perceive 
each other in the twilight of the deep ; and if they could see 
distinctly, what species of pleasure could they receive from 
such combinations?" 




CHAPTER XVII. 

SHELLS. 





MONG the many wonderful productions of na- 
ture are the sea shells. How beautifully is 
the wisdom of God manifested in shaping out 
and moulding them, and especially in the par- 
ticular angle which the spiral of each species 
of shell effects, a valve connected by necessary relation with 
the material of each, and with its stability, and the condi- 
ditions of its buovancv. 




310 WOMBERFUL STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 

This is shown in many ways; for in, the structure of 
Shells there is a general adaptation of the wants of the 
animal to which they belong. Thus, there are light shells 
for the floaters and swimmers, strength for the limpets and 
periwinkles, and other adjustments as needed for others. 
What can be more wonderful than the apparatus essential 
to what are commonly called bivalves, or molluscous ani- 
mals protected by two shells? The hinge which connects 
them shows a singular contrivance for the necessities of the 
animal. It is formed entirely of the inner layer of shell, 
and consists of either a simple cardinal (a hinge) process, or 
of serrated projections, or teeth as they are called, with cor- 
responding cavities or sockets into which they are inserted. 
To this hinge is superadded a ligament, the external sub- 
stance by which the shells are united, which binds the two 
parts together, and keeps those composing the hinge in 
their places. This ligament is highly elastic, being com- 
posed of a number of fibres, parallel to each other and per- 
pendicular to the valves which they connect. When the 
animal is undisturbed, the elastic ligament keeps the valves 
open, and the functions are carried on without any effort. 
When danger is apprehended, or circumstances require it, 
the adductor muscle or muscles contract, overcome the re- 
sistance of the hinge, and shut the valves close until they 
may be opened with safety. 

Conchology, is the science which teaches the arrangement 
of shells into classes, species, etc. Formerly, these beauti- 
ful productions of Nature were looked upon as merely pleas- 
ing toys and objects of curiosity, but gradually this inno- 
cent trifling came to be viewed in its true light, by some 
collectors worthy of better employment, who put off childish 
things and went deeper into the subject. In anticipation 
of this, shell-collectors began to look upon their treasures as 
an assemblage of gems, and, indeed, the enormous prices 
given for fine and scarce shells, joined with the surpassing 



GREAT VALu-Cj of some ailELLS. 311 

beautv of the objects themselves, almost justified the view 
which the possessor took of his cabinet of treasures. But 
after all, these were mere trinkets, and the study of shells 
and their inhabitants at length became a science of the 
utmost importance, not only to naturalists generaly, but to 
the geologist, to whom it is of the greatest value in indicat- 
ing the difference of strata and their comparative ages. 

In Southern Europe some very beautiful shells are found, 
especially in the Italian seas. Tarento is singularly rich in 
shells. The Indian seas, more than any other part of the 
world, abound with the greatest variety of shell-tish, which 
exhibit a remarkable contrast, comparatively speaking, to 
the few species found under the parallel latitudes of Africa 
and America. It is also a singular fact that nearly three- 
fourths of these shells belong to the animals entirely carnivo- 
rous, who, to support life, must be continually carrying on a 
destructiv^e warfare against the weaker animals of their own 
class. 

Many beautiful shells are brought from the coasts of 
Chili and Panama in tropical America. From the western 
coast of Africa are obtained many attractive shells, such as 
the blood-spotted Harp, the sharp-ribbed Cockle, etc. The 
small Cowry, well-known as a substitute for coin among the 
barbarous nations of Western Africa, is the same species as 
that so abundant in the Indian seas. 

Passing to Australia, there are found on the coasts many 
of the most beautiful and rare rolled shells known: the 
Snow-spotted kind being most valued. They have two dark 
bands on a flesh-colored ground, the surface being entirely 
covered with white dots. 

Many deep-sea shells are so firm in their structures, that 
they are brought to the beaches, especially of the tropical 
seas, in an entire state, and are eagerly sought after by col- 
lectors. Independent of their shape, color and lustre, many 



312 IMMENSE QUANTITIES OF SHELLS. 

of them are valuable, inasmuch as they inhabit the seas at 
such depths as not to be known in the living state. 

The number of shells is far, very far beyond human cal- 
culation. An examination of the rocks on the English sea- 
shore during the summer will prove this in a slight degree. 
These are so covered with shells that scarcely a pin's point 
could be introduced between them. Many apparent grains 
of chalk are in reality microscopic shells and fragments of 
marine coral, of which upwards of a thousand have been ob- 
tained from one pound of chalk. 

The most level and lowest parts of the earth, when pene- 
trated to a very great depth, exhibit nothing but horizontal 
strata, composed of various substances, and containing, 
almost all of them, innumerable marine productions. Similar 
strata, with the same kind of productions, compose the hills 
even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so numer- 
ous as to compose the entire body of the stratum. They 
are almost in such a perfect state of preservation, that even 
the smallest of them retain their most delicate parts, their 
sharpest ridges, and their finest and most tender processes. 
They are found in elevations, far above the level of every 
part of the ocean, and in places to which the sea could not 
be conveyed by any existing cause. The summits of the 
Pyrenees and the Andes, at the height of thirteen or four- 
teen thousand feet above the level of the sea, present them 
to our notice. 

The sea-banks and coasts are covered with broken shells, 
of which lime is the ingredient. This generally exists in 
the state of carbonate, the same as in chalk, common lime- 
stone, and marble. Many of the more tender shells and 
shelly matters are broken by the agitation of the waters, 
and form a variety of sand which is truly a product of the 
sea, and forms a valuable manure on land. G-reat deposits of 
this article are found on the coasts of Devonshire and Corn- 
wall, and in many other parts of the British coast. 



ORGANIC SIR UCTURE OF SHELLS. 313 

A spcciea of shell, the Ceritlilum felescopium, is so abundant 
near Calcutta as to be used for burning into lime. Great 
heaps of it are first exposed to the sun, to kill the animals, 
and then burnt. In some places they are so plentiful as to 
be used in road making. Mobile, Ala., is built on a shell- 
bank. 

It was formerly believed that shells were not only devoid 
of vessels, but completely without organs, being composed 
of the transpiration of particles, chiefly carbonate of lime, 
cemented together by a kind of animal glue. It is now 
known that shells possess a more or less distinct organic 
structure, which in some cases resembles that of the external 
skin of the higher animals, while in others it approaches to 
that of the true skin. 

In the limited space to which our remarks on the subject 
of this chapter is necessarily confined, we cannot give more 
than a brief outline of this exceedingly interesting depart- 
ment of science. We may briefly observe that what are 
called the Testacea (a shell), comprise animals surrounded 
with a shelly covering, and may be generally described as of 
three kinds : those that possess a single shell, of whatever 
form or character, and hence called univalves ; those which 
have two shells, the bivalves, or Conchce; and others having 
more than two shells, or multivalves. Of these, the uni- 
valves are the most numerous and exhibit the greatest 
variety of forms, being for the most part regularly or irreg- 
ularly spiral. Among the most common may be mentioned 
the ^eKa?, or snail genus ; the Paletta^ or limpet; and the 
Turbo, or wreath genus, of which the periwinkle is a species. 

The shell of the Clam, or Bear's Paw, is described as, 
perhaps, the most ornamental of bivalves, in regard to form, 
texture and color. It comes from the South Seas, and is 
much used for decorative purposes. 

Among the most curious shells is the 3Iurex, or Purple- 
shell, so highly valued by the ancients for the exquisite dye 



314 VARIETIES OF SHELLS. 

it is capable of producing ; the Volute, or Mitre-shell, includ- 
ing the fine polished spiral shells, without lips or perforation, 
which are often exhibited on chimney-pieces as ornaments, 
sometimes embellished with dots and with colored bands. 
The Strombus comprise larger shells, spiral like the volute, 
but with a large expanding lip, spreading into a groove on 
the leftside, and often still farther projecting into lobes or 
claws, the back frequently covered with large excrescences, 
in some species called Cormorant's foot. 

And now for a few observations on the use and value of 
shells. Even as niere objects of attraction they tend to 
raise the thoughts to that great and glorious Being, 

"Our God, omnific, sole original, 
Wise, wonder-working wielder of tke whole: 
Infinite, inconceivable, immense." 

who has shaped and adapted them to the wants of number- 
less creatures, of which science at the most can have but a 
feeble comprehension. Beautiful, since more exquisite sam- 
ples of elegance of form and brilliancy of color cannot be 
found through the wide range of natural objects, whether 
organized or unorganized ; surprising, when we consider that 
all these durable relics were constructed by soft and fragile 
animals, among the most perishable of living creatures. 
Still more surprising is an assemblage of shells, when we re- 
flect upon the endless variation of pattern and sculpture 
which it displays ; for there are known to naturalists more 
than fifteen thousand perfectly distinct kinds of shells. 
Every one of these kinds has a rule of its own, a law which 
every individual of each kind, through all its generations, 
implicitly obeys. 

The formation of the shell itself is but an example of a 
process at work equally in the animal and vegetable king- 
doms. A shell, whether simple or complicated in the con- 
tour or color, is the aggregate result of the function opera- 








OCEAN SHELLS. 



316 IMPORTANCE OF SHELLS. 

tion of numberless minute membranous cells, the largest of 
Avhich does not exceed one hundredth of an inch in diameter, 
and in the majority of instances is less than one thousandth 
of an inch. In the cavities of these microscopic chambers is 
deposited a crystalline carbonate of lime, which gives com- 
pactness to the beautiful dwelling-house, or rather coat-of- 
mail, that protects the tender mollusk. How astonishing is 
the reflection, that myriads of exactly similar and exceedingly 
minute organs should so work in combination that the result 
of their labors should present an edifice rivalling, nay, 
exceeding in complexity, yet order of detail and perfection 
of elaborate finish, the finest palaces ever constructed by 
man ! 

Sea-shells perform also an important part in the econ- 
omy of the universe. Maury remarks on this subject, that 
shell-fish and various other tribes that dwell far down in the 
depths of the ocean, although regarded as being so low in 
the scale of creation, spread over certain parts of the waters 
"those benign mantles of warmth which temper the winds, 
and modify more or less all the marine climates of the earth. 
The sea-breezes and the sea-shells perform their appointed 
offices, acting so as to give rise to a reciprocating motion in 
the waters, and thus imparting to the ocean forces also for 
its circulation. Sea-shells and sea-insects are the conser- 
vators of the ocean. As the salts are emptied into the sea, 
these creatures secrete them again, and pile them up in 
solid masses, to serve as the bases of islands and continents, 
to be in the course of ages upheaved into dry land, and then 
again dissolved by the dews and rains, and washed by the 
rivers into the seas." 

The use of shells is multifarious : in China, some descrip- 
tions are prepared as medicines; as articles of ornament 
they were employed in the eaidiest times. Several per- 
forated shells found in Aquitaine, in France, show that they 
must have been worn as decorations or charms by primitive 



TUB USE OF SHELLS. 317 

races. The custom of using shells as necklaces is common 
not only among savages, but among civilized people at the 
present day. Nacreous or pearl-like shells are employed for 
making buttons and other articles; colored and pearl ones 
form the ornaments of papier-mache work, card-cases, etc. 
Various small shells are made into flowers and decorations 
for head-dresses; very beautiful cameos are carved upon 
some description of shells for brooches, bracelets, ear-rings, 
and other attractive objects. The Fountain-shell of the West 
Indies is one of the largest known univalve shells, weighing 
sometimes four or five pounds. Immense quantities are im- 
ported from the Bahamas for the manufacture of cameos. 
The secret of cameo-cutting consists simply in knowing that 
the inner stratum of porcellanous shells is differently colored 
from the exterior. Some shells are manufactured into 
spoons, handles for knives, cups, lamps, etc. The purest 
kind of lime is made from calcined shells, and their use as a 
manure has already been mentioned. 

Mother-of-pearl is the beautiful white enamel, or pearly 
lining, which forms the greater part of most oyster-shells, 
but especially the larger ones found in the seas of the Pacific 
and Indian Oceans. 

In the cathedral and some of the churches in Panama the 
upper portions are studded wntli pearl shells, which give 
them a strange and not unpleasing appearance. 

It has been stated that in many of the houses in the capi- 
tal, the outer side of the verandah or corridor is composed 
of coarse and dark-colored mother-of-pearl shells, of little 
value, set in a wooden framework of small squares, forming 
Avindows, w'hich move on slides. Although the light ad- 
mitted through this sort of window is much inferior to what 
glass would give, it has the advantage of being strong. 

The use of spiral shells as trumpets or horns is traced 
back to the Romans, and they are thus employed by the 
Africans, the natives of the Eastern Archipelago and New 



318 THE TRUMPET SHELL. 

Zealand, and also in Japan. The fine Trumpet-sliellis found 
in most warm climates, in the African, the American, and 
Asiatic seas, also on the coasts of the islands of the South 
Pacific. 

An eminent writer, in speaking of the Tahitians, observes, 
" The sound of the trumpet or shell used in war to stimulate 
in action by the priests of the temple, and also by the herald, 
and others on board their fleets, was more horrific than that 
of the drum. The largest shells were usually selected for 
this purpose, and were sometimes above a foot in length, 
and seven or eight inches in diameter at the mouth. In 
order to facilitate the blowing of this trumpet they made a 
perforation, about an inch in diameter, near the apex of the 
shell. Into this they inserted a bamboo cane about three 
feet in length which was secured by binding it to the shell 
with fine braid ; the aperture was rendered air-tight by 
cementing the outside of it with a resinous gum from the 
bread-fruit tree. These shells were blown when a proces- 
sion walked to the temple, or their warriors marched to 
battle, at the inauguration of the king, during the worship 
at the temple, or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in 
the name of the gods. The sound is extremely loud, but the 
most monotonous and dismal that it is possible to imagine." 

This is the shell generally represented by painters in the 
hands of the "Tritons "or sea-monsters. 

In Ceylon shells of a certain kind are used to contain the 
sacred oil for anointing the priests. On the western coasts 
of South America there is a species of limpet which attains 
the diameter of a foot, and the shell of which is employed 
by the natives as a basin. 

Another general application of shells is as weights to nets 
and barbs for harpoons and hooks. 

To shell-fish, as articles of food, we have already alluded 
with regard to the lobster, crab, oyster, mussel, etc. The 



PORCELAIN AND COWRY SHELLS. 319 

scallops are now almost as much eaten as oysters, but re- 
quire cooking first. « 

The giant clam of the Indian Ocean, the shell of which 
often weighs upwards of five hundred pounds, contains an 
animal sometimes weighing twenty pounds, which has been 
found to be very good eating. The rock-limpet is much used 
by fishermen for bait. In the north of Ireland they are eaten. 
The whelk is also employed for bait, and many tons' weight 
of these, cockles, and winkles, are consumed by shell-fish 
amateurs. 

The mention of cockles remindes me of a statement in 
Drake's " Voyage round the World, the quaint style of 
which is amusing : 

" Our stay being longer than we purposed (in Patagonia) 
our diet began to wax short, and small musselg were good 
meat, yea, the sea-weeds were dainty dishes. By reason 
whereof we were driven to seek corners very narrowly 
for some refreshing, but the best we could find was shells 
instead of meat. We found the nests, but the birds were 
gone — that is, the shells of the cockles on the sea-shore, 
where the giants had banqueted, but could never chance 
with the cockles themselves in the sea. The shells were so 
extraordinary that it would be incredible to the most part ; 
for a pair of shells did weigh four pounds, and what the 
meat of two such shells might be may be easily con- 
jectured." 

The shells called Porcelain-shells by the French and 
Germans are almost entirely composed of lime, are richly 
enamelled, and are often very beautiful. They are most 
abundant and attain their largest size in the seas of warm 
climates. Only a few species are found on the British 
coasts. The Cowry-shell, to which we have alluded as a 
substitute for money, is not of great beauty, being yellow or 
white, often with a yellow ring about an inch long, and 
nearly as broad as long. In Bengal three thousand two 



320 THE VOICE OF A SHELL. 

hunderd cowries are reckoned equal to a rupee, so that a 
cowry is equal to one-thirty-sixth of a farthing. Yet cow- 
ries to the value of two hundred thousand rupees are said to 
have been imported annually into Bengal. Many tons of cow- 
ries are annually imported into England to be used in trade 
with Western Africa. Of the cowries a very remarkable 
fact has been stated, that when the animals find their shells 
too small for the increased dimensions of their body, they 
quit them and proceed to the formation of new ones of lar- 
ger size, and, consequently, more adapted to their wants. 
As soon as the cowry has abandoned its covering, the hinder 
part of its body begins to furnish anew the shelly matter 
which is afterwards condensed on its surface. This secre- 
tion is continued until at length the shell appears of the 
consistence of paper; and the mouth or opening of the shell, 
which at this period is very wide, soon afterwards contracts 
to its proper form and dimensions. The edges are thickened, 
and form into those beautiful folds or teeth which are so 
remarkable on each side of the opening of these shells. 
The porcelain and cowry-shells belong to a family which in- 
cludes also the shells called Poached Eggs, and the Weaver's 
Shuttle, remarkable for its prolongation at both ends. 

A well-known shell, distributed over the whole world, is 
the Fusus (a spindle), so named from its shape. In Scotland 
it is called the "roaring buckie," from the continuous sound, 
as of waves breaking on the shore, heard when the empty 
shell is applied to the ear. Wadsworth alludes to this 
" voice " of a shell in some sweet lines : 



" I have seen 
A curious child, who dwelt upon a tract 
Of inland ground, applying to his ear 
The convolutions of a smooth-tipp'd shell, 
To which, in silence hush'd, his very soul 
Listen'd intensely, and his countenance soon 
Brighten'd with joy; for murmurings from within 



ORNAMENTAL SHELLS. 321 

Were heard — sonorous cadence, whereby. 
To his belief, the monitor express'd 
Mysterious union witli his native sea." 

In the cottages of Zetland, this shell, general!}^ about six 
inches long, is used for a lamp, being suspended horizontally 
by a cord, its cavity containing the oil, and the wick passing 
through the canal. 

The shell of the Haliotis (the sea, the ear), is very orna- 
mental, and valued, on account of its pearly lining, for 
adorning papier wache articles. These shells, which are 
very numerous, and some of splendid appearance, come from 
the tropical seas, and are commonly called, from their shape, 
" ear-shells," or " sea-ears." One species, however, is found 
on the Southern European coasts, and on those of the Chan* 
nel Islands. From the warm regions are obtained the beau- 
tiful Harp-shells, the delicate and brilliant colors of which 
render them highly prized; also the Fountain-shells to 
which has already been alluded as used for cameos, and are 
much esteemed as garden ornaments for their solid and deli- 
cately-tinted substance. One of these shells sometimes 
weighs four or five pounds. 

A shell called the Razor, a common species of which is 
often picked up on the English coasts — some straight, about 
an inch long and eight inches broad ; and another curved 
like a sword — attain a large size in tropical seas, and are of 
great beauty. They are found in the sands of all seas, 
except in the cold regions, the solen, the name of the inhabitant 
of this shell, burrowing in the sands, and ascending from its 
holes by means of the foot, which can be lengthened or con- 
tracted at will. 

What are called Top-shells, from their spiral and very 
generally top-shape, are frequently found on the English 
coasts, and many of them are very ornamental, but not equal 
in this respect to the tropical specimens. 

From Australia we obtain a large number of the richly deco- 



322 



VALUE OF BABE SHELLS. 



rated Pheasant-shells, formerly of great rarity, and expen- 
sive, but now comparatively cheap. 

The Wentletrap-shells, the common kinds of which are 
found on our own coasts and those of Europe, are very 
pretty: they are spiral, with many whorls or wreaths, 
deeply divided, and crossed by remarkably elevated ribs. 
The triLe shells of this species come from the warm seas, and 
are generally very beautiful. One kind, called the Precious 
Wentletrap, is of such rarity and richness, that it is said to 
have been sold to shell collectors at the price of two hun- 
dred guineas, but it may now be had for a few shillings. It 
is nearly two inches in length, snow-white or pale flesh-col- 
ored, with eight separated wreaths. Trough-shells, several 
small species of which are very abundant on British sea- 
shores, are triangular, broader than long, and the valves equal. 
Some of them have a very attractive appearance. 





PENOUIXS. 

CHAPTER XYIII. 

SEA BIRDS. 




-^^^ the chapter on " Superstitions Connected 
with the Ocean," we have alluded to a few 
marine birds Avhich are considered by sea- 
^ men as good or evil portents in their pas- 
]^g5i|tJt(t|S^I^ sage over the ocean. We will now briefly 
describe some of the more prominent sea-birds ■which per- 
form their part in the economy of nature, and derive their 
chief sustenance from the finny inhabitants of the ocean. 
They constitute a very extensive family all over the world, 
ever on the alert to indulge in their fishing propensities, 
and voracious in their appetites; so that the poor fishes, 
what with numberless foes in their own element, Avith sea- 
birds continuall}' on the watch to prey upon them, together 
with all the ingenious arts practiced by man to ensnare 
them, cannot lead the happy and peaceful life which some 
fanciful writers have imagined them to enjoy. 

Many, many miles out at sea the oceanic birds are seen 
pursuing their predatory instincts, ever restless and untiring. 



324 EXCITING SCENES AT THE BREEDING SEASON. 

while, nearer shore, thousands in summer seek precipitous 
coasts and headlands as breeding stations. 

In winter, others, scarcely less numerous, flock from their 
more nortliern homes, and fill our bays and marine inlets. 

A writer describes an interesting spectacle which met 
his gaze after mounting a rock at Saldanha Bay, near the 
Cape of Good Hope. 

" All of a sudden there rose from the whole surface of the 
island an impenetrable cloud, which formed, at the distance 
of forty feet above our heads, an immense canopy, or rather 
sky, composed of birds of every species and all colors : cor- 
morants, sea-gulls, sea-swallows, pelicans, and, I believe the 
whole winged tribe of that part of Africa, were here assem- 
bled. All their voices, mingled together and modified 
according to their different kinds, formed such a horrid noise 
that I was obliged every moment to cover my head to give 
a little relief to my ears. The alarm that we spread was so 
much the more general among the innumerable legions of 
birds as we principally distured the females, Avhich were 
then sitting. They had nests, eggs, and young to defend. 
They were like furious harpies let loose against us, and their 
cries rendered us almost deaf. They often flew so near us 
that they flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we 
fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to frighten 
them ; it seemed almost impossible to disperse the cloud." 

Many of the precipitous rocks and islands of our own 
country present greatly exciting spectacles at the breeding 
season. Myriads of ocean birds, 

"Ranged in figures, wedge their way, 
Intelligent of season, and set forth 
Their airy caravan. High over seas 
Flying, and over lands, with mutual wing 
Easing their flight. The air 
Floats as they pass, fanned by unnumbered plumes." 

Certainly not the least interesting of marine birds is the 



^YMMETEY AND BE A UTY OF SEA GULLS. 325 

Gull, belonging to a very numerous family, which includes 
also the squas, terns, petrels, shearwaters, albatrosses, nod- 
dies, skimmers, and others, all preying chiefly on fishes and 
mollusca, together with animal garbage of every kind. 
From the latter circumstance Buffon calls the gulls "the 
vultures of the ocean ." Several of this family are the most 
oceanic of all birds, being seen hundreds of miles out at sea, 
apparently unwearied and restless. The gulls have very 
powerful wings, flying with ease against the roughest 
storms. In fine weather they fly high in the air, descend- 
ing with great rapidity to seize the fishes on the surface 
of the water, or diving slightly for herrings and small fish 
within reach. Their plumage being close and thick, they 
are good swimmers. They have a close resemblance to the 
terns, or " sea-swallows," as they are sometimes called, but 
the bill is stronger, and tlie upper mandible much more 
curved towards the end. The symmetry and strength of 
gulls are remarkable, showing how Nature has adapted 
them in every particular for all the purposes of their preda- 
tory instincts. 

" Let the reader," remarks Mr. Frank Buckland, " examine 
the pectoral or breast muscles of the next gull he kills : he 
will find them one solid mass of firm, hard muscle, admirably 
adapted to sustain and work the wings. What models of 
beauty and lightness are those wings! The bones are com- 
posed of the hardest possible kind of bone material, arranged 
in a tubular form, combining the greatest possible strength 
with the greatest possible lightness. If we make a section 
of the wing-bone of a gull, or, better still, of that of an alba- 
tross, we shall find that it is a hollow cylinder, like a wheat- 
straw; but, in order to give it still further strength, we see 
many little pillars of bone about the thickness of a needle 
extending across from side to side ; these buttress-like 
pillars are in themselves very strong, and do not break 
easily under the finger. Again, at the top of the bone 'we 



326 RAPACITY OF THE LARGE GULLS. 

find two or three holes, which communicate with the interior ; 
through these, when the bird is alive, pass tubes, which are 
connected with the lungs ; so that, when the bird starts for 
flight, he fills his wings and other bones with air, causing 
them to act something like a balloon on each side of him. 
This explains one of the chief reasons why man will never be 
able to fly: his arm-bones are filled with marroAv, which he 
cannot by any means get rid of, should he be ever so anxious 
to fly like a bird." 

Some of the larger gulls are very expert in breaking the 
shells of the mullusks on which they feed, by taking them 
up to a suflScient height in the air, and dropping them on a 
rock. Audubon, our famous naturalist, mentions an instance 
in which the gull, finding the shell not broken by the fall, 
carried it up a second and a third time, and dropped it from 
a loftier height, by which its purpose was effected. Gulls 
are able to endure hunger for a long time. An instance is 
related of one being kept without food for nine days, and 
yet retained a considerable degree of strength. When their 
prey is before them, they dart at it with such violence that 
they will swallow both bait and hook, and split themselves 
on the point placed by the fisherman under the fish which 
he presents to them. 

The selfishness and rapacity exhibited by some larger 
members of the gull family has often been observed ; the 
Glaucous is a notable instance, and is called by the Dutch 
sailors the " Burgomaster," from the tyranny ■which in virtue 
of its size and strength it exerts over most of the smaller 
birds of the Northern seas, compelling them to relinquish 
the fish they have taken ; bad qualities, shared in a like 
degree by the Parasiticus Gull. Mr. Lamont describes these 
marine bashaws very amusingly : 

" None of these birds ever seemed to take the trouble of 
picking up anything for themselves, but as soon as they 
observe any other gull in possession of a morsel which he is 



SAILORS' I^RICKS OX THE GULL. 307 

not able to swallow outright, they dash at him and hunt him 
through the air until the victim is obliged to drop what- 
ever he has secured, and the ravenous burgomaster appro- 
priates and swallows it himself. I have watched many of 
these nefarious transactions, and the result is always the 
same: the small gull turns, and twists, and doubles, and 
dodges, screaming all the time so pitifully that one would 
think he expected to lose his life instead of his dinner, but 
at last he is compelled to give up possession, and the burgo- 
master then ceases to molest him.'' 

Sailors are very fond of playing off a joke upon the gulls, 
which are always hovering about ships. They take three 
or four pieces of sail-twine about six feet in length; these 
are tied together in the middle, and to the end of each a 
small piece of blubber or fat is attached tightly, and then 
thrown into the sea. A gull comes and swallows one piece, 
another then sees there is plenty to spare, and swallows the 
next; perhaps a third gull takes possession of another; but 
as they are all attached by the sail-yarns, whenever they try 
to fly away one or the other is compelled to disgorge his 
share ; and this is continued, to the tantalizing suspense of 
the poor gulls, and the great fun of the sailors. This may 
be a confirmation of the old popular term applied to persons 
easily duped, but in most cases the gull shows great wari- 
ness and cleverness, especially in escaping from its insatiable 
enemy the heron. 

The glaucous gull is an occasional visitor to English 
shores from its habitat in Northern Europe. One was shot 
at Galway during the " famine" year in Ireland, 184Q. A 
soup kitchen had been established within some distance of 
the coast, and each day the stately-looking fellow left its 
maritime domain, and attracted by tlie smell, sailed about 
the vicinity of the soup. Many of the poor famished peas- 
ants regarded it Avitli an unfavorable eye, not being accus- 
tomed to observe a white bird of such dimensions floatins: in 



328 THE FEATHERED DERVISHES OF THE AIR. 

the air, and uttering its hoarse cries overhead, as if laughing 
at their misery. 

Another inhabitant of the cold regions is the Iceland 
Grull, smaller in size, and elegant in shape. Some species of 
this family are remakably beautiful: one of the smallest, the 
" Little Gull," from the Arctic shores, has a lovely roseate 
tint overspreading the white under-plumage. The Black- 
headed Gull abounds on English shores during autumn and 
winter, and is a fine bird, familiar and unsuspicious in his hab- 
its, and additionally interesting from the circumstance that 
this species was protected by the Druids, and was figur- 
atively adopted as an emblem connected with the Deluge, 
and formed an important feature in their ceremonies. 

The Great Black-backed Gull, distinguished also by the 
appellations of the Goose Gull, Gray Gull, and Parson Gull, 
the latter name arising from the contrast between the black 
back with the snow-white of the under-plumage, is a large 
and handsome bird. To every frequenter of the coast the 
stately and graceful form of this bird is well known, and 
whether observed in summer, when quietly sunning itself 
on the strand, or in winter amidst the conflicting war of ele- 
ments steadying itself in the eddying blast, it cannot fail to 
excite admiration. At no time more attractive than when 
observed during hazy, foggy weather, a black-backed gull, 
looming through a cloud, with its immense sweep of wing 
(often exceeding five feet), increased by the state of the 
atmosphere to a giant size, almost reminds us of the al- 
batross. 

The Herring or Silvery Gull, is distinguished by the 
spotless purity of its plumage, and ranks among the most 
beautiful of the gulls that frequent our shores, and has been 
called the feathered dervish of the air from its rapid 
and gyratory mode of flying. 

The Kittiwake is, with the exception of the " black- 
headed," the smallest of our common gulls, and during the 



liEMARKABLE PUONACITY OF THE SKUA. 329 

summer the most frequent visitor on our coasts. Almost 
exclusively maritime in its habits, it never ventures inland 
like the other species, but contents itself with the food that 
it obtains on the sea. 

The Skuas are ranked by naturalists in successive order 
after the gulls, who find in them determined antagonists. 
Armed with a powerful bill, the skua is capable of doing 
much mischief. It is related that one of these birds, which 
had received a slight injury in the wing-joint, was taken, 
and sent by the captain of a vessel on shore, in charge of a 
sailor, with instructions that the bird should be killed and 
stuffed. The sailor opening the basket in which it was 
confined rather hastily, the skua dashed ferociously at him, 
striking with its bill and buffeting with its wings, drawing 
blood with every successive stroke it made, until at last the 
sailor drew out his clasp-knife in self-defence, but so deter- 
mined was the bird, that had not a table-cloth been thrown 
over it, the contest would have been of long duration. 

The pugnacity of the skua is remarkable. No sooner 
does a skua observe an eagle within its domains than it 
makes a violent attack upon him. Mr. Drosier relates a 
very interesting anecdote on this subject. He was stand- 
ing at the foot of the loftiest hill in Foula, Shetland: "an 
eagle was returing to his eyrie, situated on the face of the 
western crags, in appearance perfectly unconscious of ap- 
proaching so near to his inveterate foe, as, in general, the 
eagle returns to the rocks from the sea without even cross- 
ing the smallest portion of the island. As I was intently 
observing the majestic flight of the bird, on a sudden he 
altered his direction and descended hurriedly, as if in the 
act of pouncing. In a moment five or six skuas passed over 
my head with astonishing rapidity, their wings partly 
closed and perfectly steady, without the slighest waver or 
irregularity. The gulls soon came up with the eagle, as 
their descent was very rapid, and a desperate engagement 



330 THE STORM PETREL. 

ensued. The short bark of the eagle- was clearly discerna- 
ble above the scarcely distinguishable cry of the skuas, who 
never ventured to attack their enemy in front, but taking a 
short circle around him, one made a desperate sweep or 
stoop, and striking the eagle on the back, darted up again 
almost perpendicularly. This cowardly attack was imitated 
by each of the other gulls, and continued some time, the 
eagle wheeling and turning as well as his ponderous winga 
would allow, and evidently harassed unmercifully, until I 
lost sight of the combatants among the rocks." 

The Petrels are among the most interesting of marine birds. 
The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that 
besides the faculty of swimming, they possess that of sup- 
porting themselves on the water by striking very rapidly 
with their feet, which has caused them to be compared 
to St. Peter walking upon the water. These birds are 
to be seen in all seas of the globe from one pole to the other, 
and are the inseparable companions of mariners during 
their long navigations, following the vessels in great flocks 
to pick up any garbage thrown into the Avater. Their flight 
is almost always performed by hovering, and without pre- 
senting apparent vibrations. They drop promptly on their 
prey, which seems to consist chiefly of the blubber or fat 
of whales, mollusca, marine worms, and the spawn of fish» 
Neither the habits of the petrels, nor the structure of the bill 
adapt them for fishing. They have the faculty of spouting 
oil, as a means of defense, in the face of any one who may 
attempt to take them. Persons not aware of this fact have 
lost their lives by falling into the sea or down precipices. 

The Storm-Petrel, the bird of ill omen among mariners, 
as has been already mentioned in another chapter, is about 
the size of a house-swallow, in length six inches, and the 
extent of the wings thirteen inches. The whole body is 
black except near the tail, some feathers of which are white. 
The ancients believed that the petrel hatched its eggs be- 



TUE TERNS OR SEA-SWALLOWS. 331 

neath its wing, as at all seasons and in every sea they bad 
been remarked flying, while there appearance on land was 

never noticed : 

"The bird of Thrace, 
Whose pinion knows no resting-place." 

It is true that the petrels do not quit the sea except at the 
time of laying, and for the purpose of making their nests 
upon ver}^ precipitous rocks, where they feed their young 
on half-digested animals. They retire there during the 
night, and utter a most disagreeable cry, resembling the 
croaking of a reptile. 

The Terns or " Sea-swallows " have remarkably long 
wings and slender bills; the tail is forked, and the plum- 
age generally is of a delicate pearl-white, with more or 
less black upon the head. The terns are continually on the 
wing, and although web-footed, are not seen to swim; they 
rest but seldom, and only on the land, feeding for the most 
part on small fish and mollusca, which they seize upon the 
surface of the water, but they also catch aerial insects. In 
flying they send forth sharp and piercing cries. The most 
elegantly formed of the terns is that called the "Roseate," 
the mantle of which is a pale tint, the under-parts of a 
rosy hue. Mr. Selby tells us that on the Fame Islands it 
breeds abundantly. " When intruding on the nest, the 
bird showed great anxiety, approaching so near that we 
knocked one or two down with a fishing-rod used by the 
keeper of the lighthouse for fishing from the rocks. All the 
terns are very light, the body being comparatively small, 
and the expanse of wings and tail so buoys thera up that 
when shot in the air they are sustained, their wings fold 
above them, and they whirl gently down like a shuttlecock." 
The species are numerous and occur in both hemispheres. 

The Skimmers, although possessing much of the general 
habits of the terns, are distinguished by the singular form 
of the bill, the upper mandible of which is considerably 



832 THE ALBATROSS. 

shorter than the other. They skim over the surface of the 
ocean with great swiftness, and scoop up small marine insects. 
The Albatross, whose habitual dwelling is the Austral 
Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope as far as New Holland, 
belongs to tLe genus Diomedia, and is the most powerful 
and bulky of the whole family. The extent of their out- 
spread wings is enormous, yet their flight, except in 
stormy weather, is by no means lofty: like all the rapacious 
birds of the ocean, they are most voracious. They devour 
fish with so much gluttony that often one-half of the body 
remains outside of the bill until the part which is swal- 
lowed, being dissolved b}^ digestion, leaves a passage for 
the rest. They are often gorged to such a degree as to 
be unable to fly, or escape the boats which pursue them. 
Although the flesh of the Albatross is hard and rank, yet 
sailors contrive to render it eatable, when they are in want 
of fresh provisions, by taking off the skin, and soaking the 
body in salt for twenty-four hours, then boiling it, and eat- 
ing it with some strong sauce. 

In spite of the strength and powerful bill of the alba- 
tross, it is by no means warlike, and will remain on the de- 
fensive against some of the gull tribe which harass them, 
and to escape such attacks they plunge their body into the 
water. They experience some difficulty in rising to their flight, 
and then strike the water rapidly with their feet and clap 
with their wings ; but after this impulsion the wings remain de- 
veloped, and they do nothing but balance themselves alter- 
nately from right to left, shaving the surface of the water 
with rapidity, and plunging in their heads now and then in 
search of food to a certain depth. 

The divers are great destroj^ers of fish, and expert in 
their method of getting supplies, as their name would sug- 
gest. Indeed, they are said to dive with such celerity that 
they often evade a shot directed against them, sinking at 
the very moment the fiash appears. These birds cannot 



THE DIVERS GREAT DESTROYERS OF FISH. 333 

support themselves on laud except in a position nearly ver- 
tical, and b}' the assistance of their wings, which thus act as 
oars. Sometimes they fall with their stomach flat on the 
ground, and have some difficulty in raising themselves up. 
They are seen in our climates only when the rivers and 
ponds of cold countries are frozen, and they return to their 
homes in the north after the thaw. They undergo a peri- 
odical change of plumage in one form or another. The Red- 
throated Diver is tolerably common around the coasts, enter- 
ing the mouths of rivers after shoals of sprats, etc. The 
Great Northern Diver, a remarkably handsome bird, occurs 
on our shores during winter, frequenting the vicinity of the 
oyster-scalps, and is there well known to the fisherman from 
its loud and monotonous call. lieemius remarks of the Lap- 
landers, that if a person hears the cry of any of the divers 
in spring, and while fasting, the milk from his flocks will not 
curdle for the whole year. Vigilant and shy, if pursued, it 
exerts its admirable locomotive powers, and advances with 
immense speed. Nature has provided means of escape and 
safety to the divers in the flattened form of the body and 
the wonderful mechanism of the foot, the membrane of 
which can be closed preparatory to each stroke. 

From the divers we are easily led to the family of the 
Auks, by means of the Guillemots, ocean birds to which the 
attribute of stupidity has been applied, but probably with- 
out sufficient reflection on their peculiar conformation, the 
wings being short and narrow so that the bird can scarcely 
flutter; the legs also from their position are quite unfit for 
the purpose of walking; and the natural element of the 
bird is only on the bosom of the sea, where it swims with 
the greatest swiftness, and even dives below the ice. 

The common is the only one of the British guillemots 
that can be called abundant, the others being comparatively 
rare, and some only straggling visitants. It is found around 
English coasts, to the Shetland and Orkney islands, and also 



I 



334 THB GKJi]AT AUK. 

around the shores of temperate Europe. When near their 
breeding-places at the proper season, they assemble in thou- 
sands, at times blackening the sea. 

Sitting closely along a ledge of rock, no matter how elevated 
above the sea, they impart all the appearance of being 
ranged in file, or, as they have been compared by the Manx- 
men, resembling an apothecary's shop — the even ledges of 
the rock, the shelves, and the birds the pots; while on the 
least alarm the entire range of the birds sweep downward 
in a line to the sea. Such successful divers are they, and 
rapacious feeders, that twenty-five herring fry have been 
counted in the stomach of a single bird. Congregated in 
parties of from eight to thirty, they evince the umost amia- 
bility towards each other, fishing and winging their way in 
small flocks to and from their breeding haunts. 

The Great Auk is an inhabitant of Northern Europe, and 
has been rarely captured on our coasts. Of considerable 
size, its power of progression is limited only to the water, the 
shortness of its wings rendering it incapable of flight, and 
from the backward position of its legs, it stands erect and 
stately. Breeding in remote northern latitudes, the eggs 
are obtained with great difficulty. The length of the bird 
is said to be from thirty inches to three feet; the bill four 
inches long, is black with transverse furrow^s, the grooves 
white. In the dress of winter the chin, throat, and sides 
of the neck are white. The Razor-bill Auk is nearly equally 
abundant -with the guillemot on all our coasts, breeding in 
the same manner together on rocks, and appearing off our 
shores durin the wanter in small parties. 

The Puffin, or "Sea-Parrot," so named from the bill, 
which, in comparison wdth the size of the bird, is strongly 
developed, is a summer visitant to English shores, repairing 
to them for the purpose of incubation. It sometimes breeds 
in fissures of the rocks; but its most general resort is in 
holes and burrows, either formed by itself or supplied by 



SINGULAR HABITS OF THE PENGUINS. 335 

rabbits, if tliey happen to be inhabitants of the same local- 
ity. On the Bass Rock, the holes in tlie ruins of the old 
fortifications afford a retreat. The Puffin is used as an arti- 
cle of food by various islands and northern tribes in whose 
vicinity they breed. They are caught by stretching a 
piece of cord along the stony places where they chiefly as- 
semble, to which nooses are attached. 

The Penguins occupy habitually the most northern 
points and islands of Europe, of Asia, and of America ; but 
they cannot remain at sea, except in calm weather. When 
the tempest surprises them far from shore, great numbers 
of them perish. Though they usually only shave the surface 
of the Avater in flying, they can elevate themselves to a certain 
height. By night they retire into the clefts of rocks and cav- 
erns. In their tottering walk they seem to rock from one 
side to the other. Their food consists in crustaceous ani- 
mals, and they also live on shell mollusca and small fish, 
which they take in diving. They make their nests in holes 
on the sea coasts, -which they enlarge with their bills and 
feet. These birds are singular in their habits. Darwin 
relates : 

"One day, having placed myself between a penguin and 
the water, I was much amused by watching its habits. It 
was a brave bird, and until reaching the sea it regularly 
fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy 
blows would have stopped him : every inch gained he 
firmly kept, standing close before me erect and determined. 
When thus opposed he continually rolled his head from side 
to side in a very odd manner, as if the power of vision lay 
only in the anterior and bassel part of each eye. This bird 
is commonly called the ' jackass penguin,' from its habit 
while on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making 
a loud, strange noise, very much like the braying of that 
animal ; but while at sea and undisturbed, its note is very 
deep and solemn, and is often heard in the night time. In 





COEMORANT. 




ALBATROSS. 



GREAT AUK. 



CORMORANTS TRAINED TO FISH. 337 

diving, its little plumeless wings are used as fins, but on 
land as front legs. When crawling (it may be said on four 
legs) through the tassocks, or on the side of a grassy clilf, it 
moved so very quickly that it might readily have been mis- 
taken for a quadruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes 
to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a 
spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any- 
one at first sight to be sure that it is not a fish leaping for 
sport." 

One of the greatest distroyers of fish is the Cormorant, 
belonging to the family of Pelicans, and the common species 
of which is widely distributed, extending around the whole 
coasts of our mainlands and islands, constructing their nests, 
on the summits of rocks most generally, of sea-weeds or 
materials collected on the waters. The bird is not easily 
approached at sea, but gets out of harm's way by flight, not 
by having recourse to diving, like so many of the true 
aquatic tribes: the flight, powerful and overland, is per- 
formed at a great height. When swimming it is easily dis- 
tinguished by its long upright neck. So keen in fishing is 
the cormorant that advantage has been taken of the circum- 
stance to train it for that purpose in the manner hawks are 
trained for fowling, a tight collar being put around the 
throat to prevent the swallowing of the prey. A bird of 
this species kept by a Colonel Montague was extremely 
docile, of a grateful disposition, and by no means vindictive. 
He received it by coach after it had been twenty-four hours 
on the road; yet, though it must have been hungry, it 
rejected every sort of food he could offer to it, even raw- 
flesh ; but as he could not procure fish at the time, he was 
compelled to cram it with meat, which it swallowed with 
evident reluctance, though it did not attempt to strike him 
with its formidable beak. After seeing it fed he withdrew 
to the library, but was surprised in a few minutes to see the 
stranger walk boldly into the room, and join him at the fire- 



338 VORACITY OF THE CORMORANT. 

side with the greatest familiarity, where it continued, 
dressing its feathers, until it was removed to the aquatic 
menagerie. It became restless at the sight of water, and 
when set at liberty, plunged and dived without intermission 
for a considerable time, not capturing, or even discovering, 
a single fish; and, apparently convinced there were none to 
be found, it made no further attempt for three days. 

The dexterity with which the cormorant seizes his prey 
is incredible. Knowing its own powers, if a fish is thrown 
into the water at a distance, it will dive immediately, pur- 
suing its course underwater in a direct line toward the spot, 
never failing to take the fish, and that frequently before it falls 
to the bottom. The quantity it will swallow at a meal is aston- 
ishing : three or four pounds twice a day are readily devoured, 
the digestion being excessively rapid. If, by accident, a 
large fish sticks in the gullet, it has the power of inflating 
that part to the utmost, and while in that state the head and 
neck are violently shaken, in order to promote its passage. 
In the act of fishing it always carries its head under water, 
in order that it may discover its prey at a greater distance 
and with more certainty than could be effected by keeping 
its eyes above the surface, which is agitated by the air, and 
rendered unfit for visional purposes. If the fish is of the 
:flat kind, it will turn it in the bill, so as to reverse its natu- 
Tal position, and by this means only could such be got with- 
in the bill. If it succeeds in capturing an eel — which is its 
favorite food — in an unfavorable position for gorging, it will 
throw the fish up some height, dexterously catching it in a 
more favorable position as it descends. The cormorant 
lives in perfect harmony with the wild swan, goose, various 
sorts of duck, and other birds ; but to a gull with a piece of 
fish it will instantly give chase. 

A writer relates : " Several years ago I took a pair of 
these birds from a nest among the rocks of Howth (Ireland), 
and kept them for nearly two years, by which time they had 



FISHING PELICANS. 339 

attained their full growtli. Tliey were pleasant pets enough, 
unless ■when pressed by hunger, when they became out- 
rageous and screamed most violently ; when satisfied with 
food, they slept, roosting on a large trough placed for hold- 
ing water. But woe to the man or beast attempting to ap- 
proach them when hungry. It happened once that agentle- 
Tuan's servant went to look at them wdiile in this state : he 
wore a pair of red plush breeches that immediately attracted 
the attention of the birds, which I had been in the habit of 
feeding with livers and lights ; the consequence was they 
made such a furious attack that I had to run to his assistance 
with a stick, and could not beat them off without the great- 
est difficulty. Their attack on cats, dogs, and poultry, if 
unprotected, was always fatal. They fought at once with 
their bills, wings, and claws, screaming frightfully all the 
time. In fact, the cause of my parting with them was their 
having destroyed a fine Spanish pointer: he had incautiously 
strayed into the place where I kept them, and they imme- 
diately flew at and attacked him in front and rear. His 
loud howling brought me to his aid, when I was astonished 
to find they had got him down, and before I could rescue 
him from their fury, they had greatly injured him in one of 
his shoulders, so much so that he afterwards died of the 
"\vound." 

The Druids believed the appearance of a cormorant during 
the celebration of their mysteries was an evil omen. Milton 
describes the arch-fiend, avIio — 

" On the Tree of Life— 
The middle tree, the highest there that grew — 
Sat like a cormorant. 

The Pelican, being furnished with a peculiar organ for 
storing up its prey, would seem to be still better adapted 
than the cormorant for being trained to fish. Labat men- 
tions that the Indians adopt this practice, and dispatch a 



340 GREAT STRENGTH OF THE PELICAN'S WING. 

pelican in the morning, after having stained it red, and that 
it returned in the evening with its bag full of fish, which it 
was made to disgorge. 

The sac or bag of the pelican is an elastic flesh-colored 
membrane, which hangs from the lower edges of the under 
mandible, reaching the whole length of the bill to the neck, 
said to be capacious enough to hold about four gallons of 
water. The bird has the power of contracting the bag by- 
wrinkling it up under the mandible, so that it is scarcely 
visible ; but after a successful fishing, it is incredible to 
what extent it is frequently distended. It preys chiefly on 
the larger fish, with which it fills its capacious pouch in or- 
der to digest them at leisure. 

The great stretch of wing in the pelican, extending to 
eleven or twelve feet, and consequently double that of the 
swan or the eagle, enables it to support itself a long time in 
the air, where it balances itself with great steadiness, and 
only changes its place to dart directly downwards on its 
prey, which rarely escapes ; for the violence of the dash, and 
its wide-spread wings, by striking and covering the surface 
of the water, make it boil and whirl, and at the same time 
stun the fish, and deprive it of the power of escape. When 
the pelicans are in flocks they act in concert, and, forming a 
great circle which they diminish by degrees, they thus en- 
close the fish, and all, at a certain signal, strike the water at 
the same moment, and amidst the disorder thus occasioned 
they plump in and seize their prey. These birds spend in 
fishing the hours of the morning and evening, when the finny 
tribe are most in motion, and they choose the places where 
they are most plentiful. 

The pelican belongs more to warm than cold climates. 
It is very common in Africa and in some parts of Asia ; it is 
met with also in this country and in the southern parts of 
Australia. It perches on trees, but does not nestle there, 



SINGULAR METHOD OF CATCHING GANNETS. 341 

constructing on the ground a nest a foot and a half in diam- 
eter, furnished with soft sea-plants. 

The flesh of the pelican was forbidden to the Jews as 
unclean. It has an ill taste, and in our country is used for 
its oil. The pouches of these birds have also been used to 
hold tobacco, and this skin, when dressed, is very soft. 

To the pelican tribe also belongs the Gannet, Solan 
Goose, much larger than the gulls, from which they may be 
distinguished at a distance by a greater length of neck, the 
intense whiteness of the plumage, and the black tip of their 
wide-spread wings. The mode in which the Gannet fishes 
is peculiar. " In flight," remarks the Rev. C. A. Johns, *' it 
circles round and round, and describes again and again the fig- 
ure of eight, at a varying elevation above the water, in quest 
of herrings, pilchards, and other fishes, whose habit it is to 
swim near the surface. When it has discovered a prey, it 
suddenly arrests its flight, probably closes its wings, and 
descends with a force sufficient to make a jet of water visi- 
ble two or three miles off", and carry it many feet down- 
wards. When successful it brings its prize to the surface, 
and devours it without troubling itself about mastication. 
If unsuccessful, it rises immediately and resumes its hunt- 
ing. It is sometimes seen swimming, perhaps to rest itself, 
for I did not observe that it ever dived on these occasions. 
My companion told me that the fishermen on the coasts of 
Ireland say that if this bird be chased by a boat when seen 
swimming, it becomes so terrified as to be unable to rise. 
The real reason may be that it is gorged with food. He 
was once in a boat on the Lough, when a gannet being seen 
a long way off", it was determined to give chase, and ascer- 
tain whether the statement was true. As the boat drew 
near, the gannet endeavored to escape by swimming, but 
made no attempt to use its wings. After a pretty long 
chase the boatmen secured it, in spite of a very severe bite 
which it inflicted on his hand. It did not appear to have 



342 FISHING EXPLOITS OF THE GANNET. 

received any injury, and when released on the evening of 
the same day, swam out to sea with great composure. A 
fisherman at Islay told me that in some parts of Scotland a 
singular method of catching these birds is adopted. A her^ 
ring is fastened to a board, and sunk a few feet deep in the 
sea. The sharp eye of the gannet detects its prey, and the 
bird, first raising itself to an elevation sufficient to carry it 
down to the requisite depth, pounces on the fish, and in tlie 
effort penetrates the board to which it is attached. Being 
thus held fast by the beak, it is unable to extricate itself. 
Frequently also gannets are caught in the herring-nets at 
various depths below the surface. Diving after the fish, 
they become entangled in the nets, and are thus captured 
in a trap not intended for them. They perform good ser- 
vice to fishermen by indicating at a great distance the exact 
position of the shoals of fish." 

Some idea may be formed of the fishing exploits of the 
gannet from what Buchanan states, that one hundred and 
five millions of herrings are destroyed annually by these 
birds at St. Kilda. They are summer visitants to the Eng- 
lish coasts, and although from their power of flight they 
seem to be widely scattered, yet their real stations or 
breeding-places are few and local. The Bass Rock, St. 
Kilda, and Ailsa Craig have long existed as Scotch locali- 
ties; while Lundy Island on the coast of Devon, and the 
Skelig Isles in Ireland, are less-known English and Irish 
stations. 

It is on the Bass Rock, in the Firth of Forth, that they 
assemble in countless multitudes, and present an extraor- 
dinary sight to the beholder, nestling upon their eggs, greet- 
ing their mates on their arrival from the sea, or quarrel- 
ling if one happens to intrude a little to near another. 
Troops of birds in adult, changing, and first year's plum- 
age, pass and repass, sailing in a smooth, noisless flight. 
The great proportion build on the ledges of the precipi- 



Am CELLS OF THE GANNET. 343 

tons iace of the rock, but a considerable number also place 
their nests — generally made carelessly of a few dried stalks 
of seaweed, rudely put together — on the summit near the 
edge, where they can be walked among; there the birds 
are very tame, allowing a person to approach them, but 
when a foot is held out aggressively they will bite at it. 

Most, if not all, of these breeding stations are rented from 
the proprietors, the rent being paid chiefly by the feathers. 
The young geese are killed and cured. The inhabitants of 
St. Kilda, the most western of the Hebrides, are said to 
consume twenty-two thousand of the young birds every 
year, besides eggs. The gannet is easily kept in confine- 
ment, though the required supply of fish renders its keep- 
ing expensive. It is indifferent alike to cold or stormy 
weather ; the air-cells which give lightness to the body are 
developed in an extraordinary degree. Montague remarks 
" the gannet is capable of containing about three full inspir- 
ations of my lungs, divided into nearly three equal portions, 
the cellular parts under the skin on each side holding nearly 
as much as the cavity of the body. In the act of respiration 
there appears to be always some air propelled between the 
skin and the body, as a visible expansion and contraction is 
observed about the breast, and this singular conformation 
makes the bird so buoyant that it floats high on the water, 
and does not sink beneath the surface, as observed in the 
cormorant and shag." 

The Hooper or Wild Swan is the most common of its 
species in England and America, being a general Avinter 
visitant. The length to the end of the toes is five feet; to 
that of the tail, four feet ten inches ; extent of wings, 
seven feet three inches; and weight from thirteen to 
sixteen pounds. The lower part of the bill is black; the 
base of it, and the space between that and the eyes, is 
covered with a naked yellow skin ; the whole plumage in 
the old birds is of a pure white, the down being very short and 



344 THE OBEAT SEA-EAGLE. 

thick. Theory of the wild swan is very loud, and may be 
heard at a great distance, from which the name of " Hooper " 
is derived. When they fly high, and numbers of different 
ages and sexes are mingled together, their notes are far from 
disagreeble. 

Belonging to the family of the Fulconidce are birds of the 
eagle kind, which fish on their own account, robbing others 
of their prey Avhen they can, and pursuing nearly the same 
method of dashing from a height upon the fish in the water. 
The Great Sea-Eagle is a distinguished member of this pre- 
datory family, measuring in length three feet, and in extent 
of wings six feet six inches. This bird often presents a 
fine feature in the wild and desolate landscape. Its most 
favorite haunts in Britain are the northern coasts of Scot- 
land, where the headlands reach a stupendous height, are 
perpendicular on the face, and where the shelvej and ledges 
selected for breeding or roosting-places are secure from 
aggression either from above or beneath. Here the sea- 
eagle resides constantly at one season, or he finds a safe 
shelter during the night, after his more extended hunting 
excursions. Here he is monarch of all he surveys ; amidst 
the numerous sea-fowl, his companions, his pale gray-tinted 
plumage and outspread tail being conspicuous when opposed 
to the dark green sea or the deep and rich shades of many 
of these splendid precipices. Although of great size and 
imposing aspect, it is less elegant than the golden eagle, 
and inferior in courage and activity to many of the smaller 
species of the tribe. When standing, its postures are by no 
means graceful, but the keenness of its bright and fierce eye 
enlivens its appearance, and under excitement it throws 
itself into beautiful and picturesque attitudes, drawing back 
its head, and erecting the narrow and pointed feathers of 
the neck. 

Besides a fondness for fish — in capturing which, however, 
the sea-eagle is not half so dexterous as the osprey — the bird 



BURNING THE NESTS OF THE SEA- EAGLE. 345 

is such a predaceous intruder on the farm-yard, tliat in tlie 
Hebrides a fierce war is waged against him. , 

The farmers of tlie isles of St. Kikhx proceed to their 
extermination, some carrying coils of rope, others bundles 
of dry heath and burning peat, and ascend to the brow of 
the mountains, where the fissured and shelved precipice 
hangs over the foamy margin of the Atlantic. Strings of 
gannets, cormorants, and guillemots are seen winding 
round the promontories, while here and there over the curl- 
ing waves is seen hovering a solitary gull. They have 
reached the brink of the clifi"s, over which the more timid 
scarce dare venture to cast a glance, for almost directly 
under their feet is the unfathomed sea, heaving its heavy 
billows some hundred feet below the place to which they 
cling. The eagles are abroad, sailing at a cautious distance 
in circles, uttering wild and harsh screams, and as they 
sweep past displaying their powerful talons. One of them 
fastens the rope to his body, passing it under his arms, and 
securing it under upon his breast by a firm knot. The rest 
dig holes Avith their heels in the turf, and sitting down in a 
row, take firm hold of the cord. The adventurer looks over 
the edge of the cliff, marks the projecting shelf which over- 
hangs the eagle's nest, and is gradually lowered towards 
it, bearing in one hand the bundle of heath with the cord 
attached to it, and the peat burning in the middle, and with 
the other pushing himself from the angular projection of the 
rock. At length he arrives on the shelf, and calls to those 
above to slacken the rope, but keep fast hold of it. Then 
creeping forwards and clinging to unstable tufts of vegeta- 
tion, on the sides of the rock, he looks downwards and ascer- 
tains the precise position of the nest, in -which are two 
eagles covered with down, skeletons of fishes, birds, and 
lambs heaped around them. At sight of the human face — 
which to their imagination is anything but divine — the 
young eagles shrink back in terror, cowering beneath the 



346 THE 08PRET OR FISHING-EAGLE. 

projecting angle that partly roofs the nest. Their enemy 
now retreats, disposes the bundle of heath in a loose manner, 
blows the peat into a flame, and partially encloses it. Once 
more he approaches the brink, casting an anxious eye 
towards the old eagles which are wheeling in short circles 
and uttering confused and piercing cries ; then blowing the 
flame, kindles the bundle of combustibles, and rapidly lowers 
it right into the nest. The young birds scream and hiss, 
throwing themselves into attitudes of defence. The heath 
smokes and crackles, and at length blazes into full flame ; 
then the sticks, sea-weeds, wool, and feathers of the nest 
catch fire, and the ascending column of smoke indicates to 
the ropemen above that the deed is doing. Flames and 
smoke conceal the young birds from the avenger's gaze, but 
he stirs not until they have abated, and he sees the huge 
eyrie and its contents reduced to ashes. He then calls to 
his friends, who tighten the rope, and preparing himself 
for the ascent, is hauled up, encountering no small danger 
from the fragments which are loosened from the rock, and 
the dijfficulty of keeping his face and breast from the ragged 
points which project from the cliff. Birds have feelings 
as well as men, and those of the eagle are doubtless acute, 
for the old birds Avheeland scream along the face of the rock 
for many days in succession, and as by this time the summer 
is far advanced, they form no new nest. 

But the king of winged fishers is the famous Osprey, the 
Fishing Eagle 'par excellence, or Fishing Hawk, as it has been 
variously named, a bird remarkable among the rapacious 
kind for the peculiar adaption it enjoys for fishing. The 
wings of the male osprey are sixty inches in length, the 
body being twenty-three ; the female, however, is larger, 
but does not differ much in color, which is generally in the 
upper parts a deep brown, beautifully glossed with light 
purple, the margins and tips of the feathers being pale 



FISHING HABITS OF THE OSPREY. 347 

brown or brownish-white. Tiie osprey finds a worthy an- 
tagonist in the white-headed eagle. 

Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic tree that 
commands a wide view of the neighboring shore and ocean, 
the white-headed eagle seems calmly to contemplate the 
motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their 
busy avocations below: the snow-white gulls slowly winnow- 
ing the air; the busy sand-pipers coursing along the sands; 
trains of ducks streaming over the surface ; silent and 
watchful cranes, intent and wading : clamorous crows ; and 
all the winged multitude that subsist by the bounty of this 
vast liquid magazine of Nature. High over all these hovers 
one whose actions instantly arrest all the attention of the 
observer. By his Avide curvature of wing and sudden sus- 
pension in air he knows him to be the osprey, the "fish-hawk," 
settling over some devoted victim of the ocean. His eye 
kindles at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened 
wungs on the branch, he watches the result. Down — rapid 
as an arrow from heaven — descends the distant object of his 
attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disap- 
pears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At 
this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardor; and 
levelling his neck for flight, he sees the osprey once more 
emerge struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air 
Avith screams of exultation. These are the signals for our 
hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, soon 
gains on the fish-hawk ; each exerts its utmost to mount 
above the other, displaying in the struggle the most elegant 
and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered sea-eagle 
rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his 
opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair 
and honest execration, the osprey drops his fish ; the eagle, 
poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain 
aim, descends like a wdiirlwind, snatches it in his grasp 



348 OSPRETS' CAPACITY FOE CATCHING PRET. 

before it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty 
to the woods. 

The osprej on leaving its nest, usually flies direct until it 
reaches the sea, then sails round in easy curving lines, turn- 
ing sometimes in the air as on a pivot, apparently without 
the least exertion, rarely moving its wings. Suddenly it 
checks its course as if struck by a particular object, which 
it seems to survey for a few moments with such steadiness 
that it appears fixed in the air, flapping its wings. This ob- 
ject, however, it abandons, and is again seen sailing round 
as before. Now its attention is again arrested, and it 
descends with great rapidity, but before it reaches the sur- 
face shoots oif on another course, as if ashamed that a second 
victim had escaped. It now sails at a short distance above 
the surface, and by a zig-zag descent, and without seeming 
to dip its feet in the water, seizes a fish, which, after carry- 
ing a short distance, it drops and probably yields up to the 
bald eagle, and again ascends by easy spiral circles to the 
higher regions, where it glides about with all the ease and 
majesty of its species. From hence it descends like a per- 
pendicular torrent, plunging into the sea with a low rushing 
sound, and with the certainty of a rifle. In a few moments 
it emerges, bearing in its claws the struggling prey, which 
is always carried head-foremost, and having risen a few feet 
above the surface, shakes itself as a water-spaniel Avould do, 
and then seeks land. If the wind blows hard, and its nest 
be in a quarter from which it comes, it is amusing to see 
■with what judgment the osprey beats up to windward ; not 
in a direct line, but like an experienced navigator, making 
several successive tacks to accomplish its purpose. 

The ospreys watch and pursue fish with as much avidity 
as the true eagles hunt their game on land ; and Nature, as 
we have remarked, has provided them with the means for so 
doing. Fish are slippery, and therefore its claws are long 



THE TROPIC SEA BIRDS. 349 

and much curved, its toes nearly of equal length, and capa- 
ble of being applied in the most effectual manner, in pairs, 
two and two opposite each other. It must also possess con- 
siderable power, and therefore its legs are strong and mus- 
cular, and to prevent its being inextricably entangled the 
claws are smooth and rounded, so that they can, if necessary, 
be readily withdrawn. The animals on which it feeds live 
in the water, ordinarily beyond its reach, coming occasionally 
to the surface; the bird, therefore, has a comparatively 
slender form, with very long wings, so as to enable it to 
remain without fatigue sailing or hovering over the water 
until an opportunity of pouncing occurs. To prevent its 
plumage from being injured by its sudden immersion into 
the water, the feathers of the lower surface are rather more 
compact and considerably shorter than in eagles and most 
other birds of the family, and those of the leg are short all 
round, while most other species have a large tuft of short 
feathers. The structure of the wings is also curious : in the 
osprey they are very long, yet length is not of itself an 
indication of great speed so much as the power of easy sus- 
pension in the air and of continued flight. The osprey re- 
quires to hover long over the waters, often over the open 
sea at some distance from land, sometimes for hours together 
before an opportunity for pouncing on its prey occurs. Its 
form, therefore, is as light as is compatible with strength. 

"True to the season, o'er our sea-beat shore. 
The sailing osprey high is seen to soar. 
With broad unmoving wing, and circling slow, 
Marks each loose straggler in the deep below — 
Sweeps down like lightning, plunges with a roar. 
And bears his struggling victim to the shore." 

We have now to notice another family, the Phaeton or 
Tropic Birds, so named because, from their habitual residence 
under the burning zone, bounded by the tropics, they seem 



350 THE FRIGATE BIRD AND THE BOOBY. 

attached to the chariot of the sun, to use a classical meta- 
phor. From this climate they remove but little, and their 
appearance indicates to seamen their approaching passage 
under this zone, from whatever side they may arrive. Still, 
they advance seaward many hundreds of miles. 

The Frigate-Bird is the representative of this species, 
the swiftest ranger of the ocean, whose extended wings 
measure a width of seven feet. How this bird treats the 
unfortunate "booby" (also a fish-hunter) is described by a 
writer, who says: 

" Every one who has read the romantic naratives of the 
old voyagers is familiar with the name of the booby, so 
termed by seamen from its apparent stupidity and familiar- 
ity, suffering itself to be knocked down by a stick, or taken 
by the hand when it alights, as it often does, on the spars or 
shrouds of a vessel. This habit seems quite unaccountable. 
Many birds have manifested a similar fearlessness of man 
when first discovered, but have soon learned the necessity 
of precaution; but the booby will manifest the same unnat- 
ural tameness after being long accustomed to the cruelty o\ 
man. It does not arise from helplessness, as it is a bird of 
powerful wing, like its relative the common gannet ; neither 
is it a sufficient explanation to affirm, as is sometimes done, 
that it arises from a peculiar difficulty in rising to flight 
after alighting, because it is not unfrequently caught in the 
air by the hand, so incautiously does it approach man. Not- 
withstanding this apparent stupidity, the booby is a dexter- 
ous fisher. Hovering over a shoal of fishes, he eagerly 
watches their motions, turning his head from side to side in 
a very ludricous manner. He presently sees one of the un- 
wary group approach the surface : down he pounces like a 
stone, plunging into the waves, which boil into foam with 
the shock. Nor fails he to seize the scaly victim, with 
which he emerges into the air, and soon it is lodged whole 



THE FRIGATE SLEEPS ON THE M'ING. 



351 



in his capacious stomach. But the frigate-bird has watched 
the proceeding", and instantly betakes himself" to the pursuit. 
Sweeping down upon the unfortunate booby, he compels 
him to disgorge the fish which he has just swallowed, and 
which, long before it can reach the water, is seized and again 
devoured by the oppressor. 

" The frigate-bird neither swims nor dives : the seamen 
even believe that it sleeps on the wing: whether this be so 
or not, there is good evidence that the same individuals will 
remain in the air for several successive days; they are never 
known to alight on a vessel. Though the chase of the booby 
is so usual as to be considered one of its constant means of 
dependence, yet it also fishes for itself; precluded, however, 
from plunging into the sea, it can only take such as, like the 
fi^^ng-fish, leap into another element. 





CHAPTER XIX. 

SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN. 

" I saw the new moon late yestreen 
With the old moon in her arm; 
And if we go to sea master, 

I fear we'll come to harm." — Old Ballad. 

:T is not surprising that men accustomed to the 
monotony of a seafaring life, remote from 
the educational influences afforded to those on 
land, Avith the many wonders of the vast ocean 
around them, full of strange mystery, which 
science only can partially unveil; with minds thus generally 
untutored, and consequently more susceptible to supersti- 
tious fancies, it is not astonishing that such persons should 
be among the most credulous of mankind. It is true that 
the spread of knowledge in modern times has removed 
many of the absurd notions peculiar to seamen ; but, as a 
class, they may still be considered among the foremost be- 
lievers in the supernatural. 

Prom the earliest times the sea has been regarded as the 
region of fabulous marvels. The ancient mariners per- 
formed their voyages in a vague mist of capricious doubts 
and fancies, omens and prognostics, which excited terror or 
inspired confidence. Every object that met their gaze was 
endowed by them with some miraculous agency for good or 
for evih Their course over unknown waters, peopled by 
their mythology w^ith imaginary creatures, would naturally 
create awe and suspicion. 



PRODIGIES AT SEA IN ANCIENT TIMES. 353 

Horace, luinentiiig at Virg-il's departure for Athens, rebukes 
the impiety of the first mariner, who ventured, in tlie auda- 
city of his heart, to go afloat, and cross the briny barrier 
between nations. He esteems a merchant favored specially 
by the gods should he twice or thrice return in safety from 
a distant cruise. He tells us he himself had known the ter- 
rors of the dark gulf of the Adriatic and had experienced 
the treachery of the western gale. 

Ancient writers are diffuse in the description of prodi- 
gies witnessed by mariners at sea, many of which, doubtless 
originating from simple causes, received the addition of a 
divine interposition. The sudden breaking up of a dense 
fog, and the sun shining in undimed splendor, was attributed 
to the appearance of Apollo himself, as the saints in later 
ages were supposed to miraculously intervene for the pro- 
tection of seamen. Apollonius of Rhodes, the Greek poet, 
describes the Argonauts (Greek heroes who, under the com- 
mand of Jason, went in search of the Golden Fleece) as sud- 
denly benighted at sea in broad daylight by a dense black 
fog. They pray to Apollo, and he descends from heaven, 
and alighting on a rock, holds up his illustrious bow, which 
shoots a guiding light farther to an island. The delusions 
of these pagan times continued through succeeding ages, 
modified only by the change of religion and a better knowl- 
edge of navigation. These notions, under various forms, 
still prevail in some foreign countries, where the divine 
light of evangelical truth has not pierced, while other 
phases of superstition still linger among our own sailors as 
regards omens, gook luck, and a number of other senseless 
notions. 

Legends of a ridiculous character abound in most all of the 
old writings, but we will now pass on to later superstitions. 
You have no doubt heard of the " Phantom Ship," which 
was supposed, when seen by sailors — or rather present in 
their imaginations only — to foretell disaster. This story 



354 TEE PHANTOM SHIP. 

originated with the Dutch, and found believers among sea- 
men of all countries. Sir Walter Scott alludes to this 
spectral illusion as a harbinger of woe : 

" Tlie phantom ship whose form 
Shoots like a meteor through the storm, 
Wlien the dark scud comes driving hard. 
And lower'd is every topsail-yard. 
And canvas wove in earthly looms 
No more the brave the storm presumes 
Then 'mid the roar of sea and sky, 
Top and top-gallant hoisted high, 
Full spread and crowded every sail. 
The demon frigate braves the gale, 
And well the doom'd spectators know 
The harbinger of wreck and woe." 

Water-spouts at sea were regarded in olden times with 
great terror. Sailors were accustomed to discharge artil- 
lery at these moving columns to accelerate their fall, from a 
fear lest the vessel should be sunk by them. The principal 
danger, however, arises from the wind blowing in sudden 
gusts in the vicinity of the spout from all points of the com- 
pass, sufficient to capsize small vessels carrying much sail. 
Another practice was to cut the air with a knife, while 
reciting some prayers, by which simple enchantment it was 
supposed the water-spouts would be reduced to submission. 
If it happened, however, to be in an obstinate mood, two 
sailors would draw their swords, and strike at each other, in 
true gladiator style, taking care between each blov^ to make 
the sign of the cross. 

It is a cheering instance of human progress that, by the 
introduction of lightning-conductors into ships, the fearful 
electric currents which destroyed many noble vessels is now 
placed under control and rendered powerless. 

Among the ancients it was believed that certain persons 
had the power of raising tempests at sea. In the " Odys- 
sey," ^olus is described as possessing these attributes, and 



STORMS RAISED BY WITCHES, ETC. 355 

Calypso, in the same work, is said to have been able to con- 
trol the winds. 

The belief in human agency to influence the ocean was 
prevalent in the fifteenth century. A curious confession was 
made in Scotland about the year 1469, by one Agnes Samp- 
son, a reputed sorceress, who avowed that " at the time His 
Majesty (James VI.) was in Denmark, she took a cat and 
christened it, and afterwards bound to each part of that cat 
the chiefest parts of a dead man, and several joints of his 
body; and that in the night following, the said cat was con- 
veyed into the midst of the sea, by herself and other 
witches, sailing in their baskets, and so left the said cat right 
before the town of Leith in Scotland. This done, there 
arose such a tempest in the sea as a greater hath not been 
seen, which tempest was the cause of the perishing of a 
boat or vessel wherein were sundry jewels and rich gifts, 
which should have been presented to the new Queen of 
Scotland at Her Majesty's coming to Leith." 

Such was the language of a silly old Avoman, probably 
extorted by torture from a weak imagination. 

King James, in his " Demonology," states " that witches 
can raise stormes and tempestes in the aire, either on sea or 
land," which Avas in answer to Reginald Scot, who in his 
" Discoverie of Witchcraft " ridiculed the " black art " 
severely, and he had the advantage of his royal master, the 
" British Solomon," as he had been equivocally termed, in 
this and many other statements. 

The Evil One was supposed to have a direct influence on 
the winds and waves. 

Some sailors have a strange opinion of satanic power and 
agency in stirring up winds, and that is the reason they so 
seldom whistle on shipboard, esteeming it to be a mockery, 
and consequently an enraging of the devil. 

We should scarcely expect that the mere turning of a 
stone was supposed to have had an effect in procuring favor- 



356 CUSTOMS ON SAINTS' DATS BT FISHERMEN. 

able breezes, yet we read that, the inhabitants of some 
parts of the Western Islands had implicit faith in this charm. 
In the chapel of Fladda Chuan there was a blue stone fixed 
in the altar, of a round form, which was always moist. It 
was the custom of any fishermen who were detained on the 
island by contrary winds to wash this blue stone with 
water, expecting by this to obtain a favorable wind. So 
great was the regard paid to this stone, that any oath sworn 
before it could never be broken. Another mode of these 
primitive islanders to secure auspicious winds was of a 
bucolic character, and consisted in hanging a he-goat to the 
mast-head. 

A similar feeling with regard to the efficacy of stones, 
though for another object, existed among the fishermen of lona 
This took the shape of a pillar, and the sailor who stretched 
his arm along it three times in the name of the Trinity 
could never err in steering the helm of a vessel. The Fin- 
landers are said to have used a cord, tied with three knots, 
for raising the wind: when the first was loosed, they could 
expect a good wind ; if the second, a stronger ; and if the 
third, such a storm would arise that the sailors would not be 
able to direct the ship, or avoid rocks, or stand upon the 
decks. The French seaman in former days had a comical 
notion that the spirit of the storm was propitiated by flog- 
ging unfortunate midshipmen at the mainmast. 

Particular seasons of the year and saints' days were held 
in superstitious regard among mariners, and peculiar cus- 
toms were attached to them. The old practice of setting 
the nets at Christmas Eve was general among Swedish fish- 
ermen. The sailors at Folkestone, in Kent, chose eight of 
the largest and best whitings out of every boat, when they 
came home from the fishery. Out of the profit arising 
from these they made a feast every Christmas Eve. On 
Allhallow's Even, or the vigil of All Saints' Day, the fisher- 
men of Orkney sprinkled what was called fore-spoken water 



BLESSING TUE WATERS. 357 

over their boats when they had not been successful. They 
also made the sign of the cross on their boats with tar. The 
sailors in the Island of St. Lewis had an ancient custom of 
sacrificing- to a sea-god called Shony, at Hallow-tide. They 
came to the church of St. Malv^ay, each seaman having his 
provisions with him. Every family furnished a peck of 
malt, and this was brewed into ale. A fisherman was se- 
lected to wade into the sea, carrying a cup of ale in his hand 
and crying, " Shony, I give you this, hoping you will send 
us plenty through the year." 

The fishermen of Finland believed that any among them 
who created a disturbance on St. George's Day would pro- 
voke storms and tempests. At Dieppe, in Normandy, even 
to a late period, All Saints' Day was religiously observed by the 
sailors of that port. Those who ventured out to sea on that 
anniversary were supposed to have the "double sight;" that 
is, each one beheld a living likeness of himself seated in 
close contact, or when engaged in any work, doing the same. 
If the nets were cast out, they ■were found, on drawing them 
in, to contain nothing but bones. On the same day to- 
ward midnight, a funeral car was heard driven slowly by 
a team of eight wdiite horses, preceded by dogs of the same 
color. Those who listened might hear the voices of those 
sailors who had died in the course of the 3^ear, Those per- 
sons w^ho dared to look at this fearful scene were doomed to 
die shortly afterwards ; so, as the hour approached, every 
house was barred and windows closed. 

The Russian Twelfth day (18th of January) is devoted to 
the singular custom of blessing the waters of the Neva, 
there being no parallel ceremony in any other country, ex- 
cept the practice once observed at Venice, of the Doge es- 
pousing the sea. On the same day at Constantinople, the 
Greek Patriarch performs a similar custom by throwing a 
cross into the sea, and it is said that skillful divers gener- 
ally succeed in obtaining it before reaching the bottom. 



358 APPARITIONS AT SEA. 

The fishermen who dwell on the coasts of the Baltic never 
used their nets between All Staints' Day and St. Martin's 
Day, believing that any infraction of this rule would pre- 
vent them from getting fish through the whole year. A 
similar observance, for the same reason, was held on St. 
Blaise's Day. They also considered sneezing on Christmas 
Day a favorable omen for the ensuing year. 

The fishermen of Hartlepool preserve many old customs, 
such as Carling and Palm Sundays, and Easter Day. At 
Christmas the children sing carols, and sword-dancers go 
about the streets; and on the first Monday after the Epiph- 
any, the stot or fool-plough (a small anchor) is dragged 
through the town, and donations requested. 

Sailors have always had their prejudices with regard to 
certain days of the week. That ominous da}", Friday, so 
dark-lined to so many weak-headed individuals — not only at 
sea but on shore — was and is still considered by many mariners 
a blank day for sailing. A Cornish saying places Candlemas 
Day as ill omened for sailing. Bishop Hall, speaking of a 
superstitious man, observes, " he will never set to sea except 
on Sunday." At Preston-Pans, it seems, that holy day was 
usually selected for sailing to the fishing grounds : a clergy- 
man of the town preached against this Sabbath-breaking, 
and the sailors, to prevent any ill befalling them in conse- 
quence, made a small image of rags, and burnt it on the top 
of their chimneys. 

Apparitions have always been a fruitful source of terror 
to seamen. A few years ago half a dozen sailors on board a 
man-of-war took it into their heads that there was a ghost in 
the ship, and declared they smelt him. The captain laughed 
at them, and called them a parcel of lubbers. A few nights 
afterwards they were in great terror, saying the ghost was 
behind the beer-barrels. The captain, annoyed at their 
folly, ordered a dozen lashes to each of them, which effectu- 
ally stopped all talk about the spirit. When the barrels 



BELIEF IN THE VIRTUES OF A " CA UL." 359 

were removed some time afterwards, a dead rat was found, 
wliich had given rise to the story. Brand mentions that the 
cook of a vessel belonging to Newcastle died on a homeward 
passage. One of his legs was sliorter than the other, which 
had given him an odd appearance when he walked. A few 
nights after the body had been committed to the deep, the 
captain was alarmed by his mate assuring him that the man 
was walking on the sea before the ship. The captain cer- 
tainly saw something that seemed to move as the cook had 
walked, and ordered the ship to be moved towards the 
object. The seamen were greatly terrified ; but it was 
soon found that the cause of all the commotion was part of 
a main-top, the remains of some wreck, floating before them. 
In the campaigns of the French fleet at Mitylene, the crew 
of a brigantine are said to have seen the figure of a mon- 
trous and hideous seaman descend in the waters at Zante, 
with one of the crew who had defied the Virgin while play- 
ing at dice on board. 

A belief is still widely entertained in the virtues of a 
child's caul as a preservative against drowning and ship- 
wrecks. In a Plymouth (England) paper, the Western Morn- 
ing News, of the 9th of February, 1867, there was a notice 
to mariners: " For safeguard at sea: a child's caul for sale, 
price five guineas." The pretended virtues of this object 
reminds us of what is told of Augustus Caesar, that he 
carried a seal's skin about him as a preservative against 
lightning. 



CHAPTER XX. 

MARINE PRODIGIES. 

' God quickened in the seas and in the rivers 
So many fishes of so many features, 
That in the waters we may all see creatures, 
Even all that on the earth are to be found, 
As if the world were in deep waters drown'd." — Du Bartas. 

■•* 
jNTIL the commencement of the seventeenth 
; century, nothing like a dawn of true light 
i with regard to natural history seemed to 
strike upon the popular mind. A labori- 
^ ous but very credulous professor at Bolog- 
na, Aldrovandus, wa-ote no less than fourteen folio volumes 
on the subject, published in 1640; but the true and the false, 
fable and nonsense, are strangely intermixed. Some of the 
engravings in these books are very curious, and give an idea 
of the exaggerative style of their contents. These we have, 
magnified in every extent, by succeeding writers. 

The Kraken, described by Pontoppidan in his " Natural 
History of Norway," is one of the most extraordinary of 
these wonderful sea- monsters, and claims the peculiar privi- 
lege of the wide domain of the Norwegian waters. 

"Our fishermen usually affirm," says this writer, "that, 
when they row out several miles to sea, particularly in hot 
summer days, they are informed by various circumstances 
that the kraken is at the bottom of the sea. Sometimes 
twenty boats get together over him, and when, from well- 



THE KRAKEN DESCRIBED. 361 

known indications, they perceive it is rising, they get away 
as fast as they can. When they find themselves out of dan- 
ger, they lie upon their oars, and in a few minutes they see 
the monster come to the surface. He there shows himself 
sufficiently, though only a small part of his body appears. 
Its back, which appears to be a mile and a half in circum- 
ference, looks at first like a number of small islands, sur- 
rounded with something which floats like sea-weeds ; here 
and there a large rising is observed like sand-banks ; at last, 
several bright points or horns appear, which grow thicker 
the higher they rise, and sometimes they stand up as 
high and as large as the masts of middle-sized vessels. It 
seems these are the creature's arms, and it is said, if they 
were to lay hold of the largest man-of-war, they would pull 
it down to the bottom. After the monster has been a short 
time on the water, he begins slowly to sink again ; and then 
the danger is as great as before, because the motion of the 
sinking causes such a swell and such an eddy or whirlpool 
that he carries everything before it." 

Such is the description of the fabulous kraken. Divested 
of its supernatural powers and dimensions, there may be 
some foundations for these exaggerations in the occasional 
appearances of huge cephalopods (molluscous animals having 
the head covered with tentacula or feelers, serving as feet), 
to the general characters of which the description given of 
its form and monstrous arms sufficiently agrees. Many such 
animals are known to exist in some seas, and there are rea- 
sons for believing that much larger creatures of the same 
species exist. 

It is a favorite notion of Pontoppidan that from the ap- 
pearance of the kraken originate those dim traditions of 
floating islands being observed in the North seas. It has been 
sought to identify the cuttle-fish of enormous size with the 
kraken, and stories are told of men having been drawn over 
the sides of vessels by their enormous arms. In 1834, Cap- 



362 THE GREAT SEA-SERPENT. 

taiiiNeill, of the ship Robertson, of Greenock, saw the head 
and snout of a great sea-monster, of which a sketch was 
taken at the time. It appeared like a vessel lying- on her 
beam-ends. The ^oier^sow was hauled up so as to near it, 
and it was discovered to be the head and snout of a great 
fish swimming to windward: immediately above the water, 
its eye was seen like a large deep hole. The part of the 
head which was above the water measured about twelve 
feet, and its width twenty-five feet. The snout was about 
fifty feet long, and the sea occasionally rippled over one 
part, leaving other parts dry and uncovered. Several 
records exist in Scotland of the appearance of similar ani- 
mals to that which have been noticed, but the result appeaTs 
to infer the existence of some enormous cuttle-fish, possessed 
of characters which distinguish it essentially from every 
other creature with which we are familiar. Pliny's vast 
animal, Mnth prodigious arms, which impeded the navigation 
of the Straits of Gibraltar, would seem to have had a family 
likeness to the kraken. 

The great Sea-Serpent appears to have some analogy to 
the same monster as we have described, and here again the 
sapient Pontoppidian raises our eyes in astonishment at his 
description of this marine prodigy, which he describes as 
six hundred feet in length, lying in the water in many folds, 
and appearing like many hogsheads floating in a line at a 
considerable distance from each other. Such a creature is 
said to have been seen on the coast of Norway, in 1819, for 
a whole month, seeming to doze in the sunbeams. In 1822 
and 1837, it is said to have reappeared in the same waters. 
Our sailors, not to be outdone by the Norwegians, relate 
several cases in which prodigious sea-serpents have been 
seen in the Atlantic, opinions varying as to the length of the 
animal, averaging from eighty feet to two hundred and fifty 
yards, making curves "perpendicular to the water, and with 
eyes brilliant and glistening." 



THE DRAGON IN THE SEA. 363 

British sailors have also their account in the prodigy 
■witnessed in IS-IS, in the South Atlantic Ocean, not far from 
the coast of Africa, by the officers and crew of H.M.S. 
" Dredalus." 

According to the account forwarded to the Admiralty, 
the animal was seen not in bright and fine weatliei', but with 
a murky atmosphere, and with a long ocean swell. It was 
swimming rapidly, and with its head and neck above water, 
and appeared an enormous serpent, with head and shoulders 
kept about four feet constantly above the surface of the sea. 
It passed so close under the lee-quarter of the vessel, that 
its features were easily recognized. The diametre of the 
serpent was about fifteen or sixteen inches behind the head, 
and the animal was never, during the twenty minutes that 
it continued in sight, once below the surface of the water. 
The color was dark brown, with yellowish-white about the 
throat. It had no fins but something like the mane of a 
horse, or rather a bunch of sea-weed, washed about its neck. 

England's great anatomist, Dr. Owen, has expressed much 
doubt as to the existence of a great sea-serpent, on the 
ground that no bones or other remains of such recent animal 
have been found. Notwithstanding this high authority, it 
may be, however, that many animals in the ocean depths, of 
this character, are still unknown to us. 

It has been supposed that large fishes of the Ribbon 
family may have given rise to some of these stories about 
the great sea-serpent. One was lately captured at the Ber- 
mudas, apparently an immature fish, but more than sixteen 
feet in length, and with a long row of flexible filaments, or 
slender threads on the back of the head and anterior parts 
of the back, which might well represent the mane alluded 
to as an appendage of the serpent prodigy. The fishes of 
this kind are inhabitants of great depths in the ocean, and 
this may account for the rarity of their appearance. One 
species belongs to the Northern Seas, where the appearance 



364 MERMAIDS AND MERMEN. 

of the sea-serpent has been particularly recorded; others 
belong to the warmer regions. It may be that these fishes 
attain to a length that would corroborate the assertions of 
those who have seen the sea-serpent, making a due allowance 
for exaggeration under such novel circumstances. 

Mr. Adams, naturalist of the English ship " Samarang," 
writing of Sooloo and the molucca Archipelagoes, remarks: 
" I have often witnessed the phenomenon which first gave 
origin to the marvelous stories of the great sea-serpent, 
namely, lines of rolling porpoises, resembling a long string 
of buoys often extending a hundred yards. These account 
for the so-named protuberances of the serpent's back. They 
keep in close single file, progressing rapidly along the sur- 
face of the water by a succession of leaps, part only of their 
uncoutli forms appearing to the eye." 

The belief in Mermaids and Mermen, prevalent through 
the remotest ages, was also especially strong in the Scandi- 
navian countries, and some traces of the delusions still 
linger on some of the out-of-way coasts of the Northern seas. 
A very high antiquity is claimed for these mythic creatures. 
Ancient history abounds with notices of them. One was 
called by the Babalonians Odakooi, and is regarded as identi- 
cal with Dagon, the national god of the Philistines, so fre- 
quently mentioned in the Scriptures. It is always repre- 
sented on medals as half fish and half woman, but the 
Hebrew Avriters speak of it as a masculine being. In the 
excavations of Khorsabad, M. Botta found a figure of Odunes, 
a creature half man and half fish. At the excavations at 
Nimroud, Mr. Layard discovered a gigantic figure with a 
fish's head as a cap, and the body of the fish depending over 
the shoulders. On the coins of Ascalon is figured a goddess, 
above whose head is a half-raoon, and at her feet a woman 
with her lower extremities like a fish. It is singular how 
the prevalence of the tales of mermaids exists among Celtic 
nations, indicating these water-nymphs as having been 



A MERMAID DESCRIBED. 365 

originally deities of the people. The Peruvians had also 
their semi-fish gods. These form the types of those imagin- 
ary creatures, the subjects of ancient poetry, the Tritons, 
who were represented as half men and half fish, having 
power to calm tempests; and probably, too, of the Syrens, 
whose songs were said to lure the unhappy seamen to 
destruction. 

Innumerable are the stories that are told of mermaids 
and mermen: they have been made the subject of number- 
less songs by ancient and modern bards. Shakespere 
alludes to the vocal poAvers of these mythic creatures: 

" I heard a memiaid on a dolpliia's back 
Uttering such dulcet and harmonious breath 
That the rude sea grew civil at her ~ong." 

Laureate inquires: 

" Who would be 

A mermaid fair? 
Singing alone. 
Combing her hair 
Under the sea, 
In a golden curl, 
With a comb of pearl, 
On a throne ?" 

In the " Speculum Regale," an Icelandic work of the 
twelfth century, is the following description of a mermaid: 
" A monster is seen also near Greenland, like a woman as far 
down as the waist ; long hands and soft hair, the neck and 
head in all respects like that of a human being. The hands 
seem to people to be long, and the fingers not to be parted, 
but united by a web like that on the feet of water-birds. 
From the waist downwards this monster resembles a fish, 
with scales, tail, and fin. This prodigy is supposed to show 
itself more especially before heavy storms. The habit of 
this creature is to dive frequently, and rise again to the 
surface with fishes in its hands. When sailors see it plav- 



366 PBOBABLE ORIGIN OF STORIES OF MERMAIDS. 

ing with the fish, or throwing them toward the ship, they 
fear they are doomed to lose several of the crew; but when 
it casts the fish, or, turning from the vessel, flings them 
away from her, the sailors take it as a good omen that they 
will not suffer loss in an impending storm, The monster has 
a very horrible face, with broad brow and piercing eyes, a 
wide mouth, and double chin." 

Many of the so-called mermaids exhibited in a stuffed 
condition from time to time have proved sometimes clever, 
but more frequently bungling " shams." Among the latter 
may be classed the exhibition of the famous P. T. Barnum, 
a few years since, which proved to be the combination of 
the head of a monkey with the tail of a fish! The probi- 
bility is that all the stories about these prodigies have 
originated in the appearance of seals, walruses, to which we 
have already alluded, and to what are called the herbivorous 
cetacea, from their living on sea-plants, and which consists 
among others of the manatee of the West Indies, the dugong 
of the Eastern seas, and the stellerus, an inhabitant of the 
Polar regions. 

The best-known species of the Manatee, or Sea-Cow, is 
found in the West Indies and on the western coasts of tropi- 
cal America. These sometimes attain a length of twenty 
feet, and a weight of three or four tons, and they live chiefly 
in shallow bays and creeks, and in the estuaries of rivers. 
The skin is very thick and strong, and is almost destitute of 
hair. The fingers can be readily felt in the swimming paws, 
and, connected together as they are, possess considerable 
power of motion, whence the name manatee (from the Latin 
manus, " a hand"). This animal is usually found in herds, 
which combine for mutual protection when attacked, placing 
the young in the centre. When one is struck with a har- 
poon, the others try to tear it out. The females show great 
affection for their young. 

The Dugong — numbers of which frequent the coasts of 



P0ETUGEU8E BELIEF IN MERMAIDS. 367 

Ceylon, allured by the still waters and the abundance of 
sea-weeds — is, perhaps, one of the most likely representatives 
of what is considered a "mermaid" that could be found. 
There is a rude approach to the human outline in the shape 
and attitude of the mother dugong while suckling her young, 
holding it to her breast by one flipper while swimming 
with the other, the heads of both being above water ; and 
when suddenly disturbed, diving and displaying her fish-like 
tail. These, together with her habitual demonstrations of 
strong natural affection, might readily give rise to the fable 
of the mermaid. 

Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the 
ocean near Taprobane (Ceylon), with the aspect of a woman ; 
and ^lian, adopting and enlarging on his information, peoples 
the seas of Ceylon with fishes having the heads of lions, 
panthers, and rams; and stranger still, in the form of satyrs! 
Statements such as these must have had their origin in the 
hairs which are set round the mouth of the dugong, somewhat 
resembling a beard. The Portuguese cherished for a long 
time their belief in the mermaid ; and the historian of the 
proceedings of the Jesuits in India gravely records that seven 
of these monsters, male and female, were captured at Cey- 
lon and carried to Goa, where they were dissected by the 
physician to the Viceroy, and "their internal structure 
found to be in all respects similar to the human!" A du- 
gong, killed at Ceylon in 1847, measured upwards of seven 
feet in length, but specimens considerably larger have been 
taken. 

The female dugong, or sea-cow of Sumatra, will follow 
her young to the death, and is usually taken with them. 
The sea-calves have a short, sharp, pitiable cry, which they 
frequently repeat, and, like the stricken deer, are also said 
to shed tears, which, according to Sir Stamford Rafiies, were 
carefully bottled by the common people, and preserved as 
charms to secure affection. 



368 CURIO US NOTICES OF MONSTBO US FISH. 

Only one species of the Stellerus — of the same genus as 
the two mentioned — has been known, about twenty-five feet 
in length, a native of the polar seas, and never observed since 
the middle of last century, so that it is supposed to be ex- 
tinct. The characteristic features of this animal would lead 
one to suppose, also, that it may have contributed to the 
misconceptions about the mermaid. 

An eminent writer remarks that the exhibition of 
strange fishes appears to have been at its height in the 
reign of Elizabeth. Shakespere twice alludes to it: once in 
the "Winter's Tale" (Act IV., Scene 3), where Autolycus says : 
"Here's another ballad of a fish that appeared upon the 
coast on Wednesday, the fourscore of April, forty thousand 
fathoms above water, and sung this ballad against the hard 
hearts of maids. It was thought she was a woman, and was 
turned into a cold fish, for she would not exchange flesh with 
one that loved her. The ballad is very pitifuL and as 
true;" and again, in the "Tempest" (Act II., Scene 2). A 
printed notice, dated 1566, has for its title " The Description 
of a Rare or rather Most Monstrous Fishe, taken on the 
East Coast of Holland, the 17th November, Anno 1566," 
with a woodcut of the fish, and underneath the following 
lines : 

" The workes of God, how great and strange they be ! 
A picture plaine, behold, heare you may see." 

Two years later there is another printed notice of a 
"moste true and marvellous strange wonder, the lyke hathe 
seldom been seene, of xvii monstrous fishes, taken in sufifulke, 
at Downam Brydge, within a myle of Ipswiche, the xi daye 
of October, in the yeare of our Lorde God, 1568." StoWj in 
his " Annales," gives a particular description of this " won- 
drous draught of fishes," some of them being " eight and 
twentie foote in length at least." 




CHAPTER XXL 

MONSTERS OF THE DEEP.— SEA DRAGONS. 

"A world of wonders, where creation seems 
No more the works of Nature, but her dreams." 

Montgomery. 

ITE have chosen for the present chapter a sub- 
ject of the deepest interest, for it carries our 
thoughts to ages beyond the human mind to 
conceive, when the ocean, covering an im- 
mense expanse of our globe, swarmed with 
gigantic reptiles in the highest state of development, living 
in the open sea, and seeking the shore occasionally, crawl- 
ing along the beach in search of prey. These reptiles Avere 
inhabitants of the ocean thousands of ages past, and from 
their strength and voracity must have been fearful scourges 
in that element. 

Lyme Regis, a seaport in Dorsetshire, became remarkable 
at the commencement of the present century for the number 
of fossils embedded in the limestone cliffs, and a native of 
the place, Mary Anning, who had been engaged from her 
childhood in searching for what were then popularly called 
" curiosities," saw in 1811 an immense bone projecting from 
the ledges of the rocks, and having traced the remains of 
what she considered an enormous crocodile, she employed 
some laborers to dig out the blocks of stone in which they were 
petrified. These remains, placed together, proved to be 
the skeleton of a marine monster about thirty feet in length, 
with jaws nearly six feet feet long. This was a "fish-lizard," 



370 HUGE SEA-LIZARDS. 

of which seven or eight different species may be seen in the 
British Museum. 

Many have, no doubt, often been amused and perhaps 
frightened in their childhood, by the descriptions of dragons 
and other fearful monsters, which found their way, we are 
sorry to say, much too frequently in story-books ; but one 
could not imagine a more dreadful-looking creature than 
this huge sea-lizard, with a head like a crocodile, and the 
jaws provided with a great number of immense teeth (in 
some cases one hundred and eighty) ; the eyes in volume 
exceeding the size of a human head, and so constructed as 
to afford a wonderful magnifying power in tracing their 
prey through the darkness and depth of the ocean. 

The body was like that of a fish, with a broad and long 
tail, and four paddles (instead of feet, like those of the lizard 
or crocodile), similar to those of the whale tribe, enabling 
the animal to move, as they do, with rapidity through the 
water; and with such a construction of the breast-arch as 
enabled it to descend to the bottom of the sea in search of 
food, which consisted of fishes and reptiles, the remains of 
which have been discovered with the bones of the animal, 
thus shoMdng upon what it subsisted. When we discover in 
the body of a fish-lizard the food which it has engulfed an 
instant before its death — when the intervals between its 
sides present themselves still filled with the remains of fishes 
which it had swallowed some ten thousand years ago, or at 
a time even twice as great — all these immense intervals 
vanish, and we find ourselves, so to speak, thrown into im- 
mediate contact with events which took place in epochs 
immeasurably distant, as if we occupied ourselves with the 
affairs of the previous day. 

Another huge fossil marine animal, the Plesiosaurus, a 
species of the fish-lizard, somewhat allied in its structure to 
the animal just mentioned, was first discovered at Lyme 
Regis, about the year 1823. This was a most extraordinary 



372 HABITS OF THE PLEBI08A UBU8. 

creature, with the head of a lizard, the teetli of a crocodile, 
a neck of enormous length, resembling, on a very enlarged 
scale, that of a swan, the ribs of a chameleon, a body rounded 
like that of a great marine turtle, a tail shorter, in compari- 
son with the length of the body, than the fish-lizard," acting 
the part of a rudder in directing the course of the animal 
through the water. 

That the habits of this huge reptile were aquatic, is evi- 
dent from the form of its paddles ; that it was marine is 
equally so from the remains with which it is universally 
associated ; that it may have occasionally visited the shore, 
the resemblance of its extremities to those of the turtle may 
lead us to conjecture : its motion, however, must have been 
awkward on land, and its long neck may have impeded its 
progress through the water. May it not, therefore, be con- 
cluded that it swam upon or near the surface, arching back 
its long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down 
on the fish which happened to float Avithin its reach? It 
may perhaps have lurked in shoal water along the coast, 
concealed among the sea-weed, and raising its nostrils to a 
level with the surface from a considerable depth, may have 
found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous 
enemies. 

The Plesiosaurus was scarcely as large as the '' sea- 
lizard;" some of the species, however, measure from eigh- 
teen to twenty feet. 

The two animals just described do not seem to have had, 
as far as can be judged, a scaly covering; but another mon- 
strous reptile of the primitive seas, the Teleosaurus — a kind 
of fossil crocodile inhabiting the seas and rivers of the Old 
World, the great pirate of the ocean — was armed to the 
teeth, and clothed with an impenetrable coat of mail both 
on the back and stomach. This fearful animal was thirty 
feet in length, the head measuring from three to four feet, 
with enormous jaws, well defended beyond the ears, some- 



TUE MCESAtiA UB UlS. 373 

times with an opening of six feet, through which they conld 
swallow animals tlie size of an ox. 

These animals were, from their enormous size and vora- 
city, the terror of the primitive seas. After them we have 
the Mcesascmrus, a creature whose remains were first discov- 
ered at Maestricht, on the banks of the Meuse, in 1780. 
This occurred when the knowledge of these ancient prodi- 
gies was still in its infancy. One saw in it the head of a 
crocodile, another that of a whale. Among those interested 
in the discovery of these ancient vestiges of creation was 
an officer of the garrison at Maestricht, named Drouin. He 
purchased the bones of the animal as the workmen disen- 
gaged them from the rock, and formed a collection of fossil 
rarities at Maestricht, which excited great curiosity. The 
head, which exceeded six feet in length, was sent to France 
and placed in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. 

To show the wonderful anatomical knowledge of scientific 
men in modern times, we may mention that Cuvier was able 
to ascertain the character of the entire skeleton of this huge 
animal from the examination of the jaws and teeth alone, 
and even from a single tooth ! Tliis told a history in itself: 
being without a root, not hollow, as in the crocodile, but 
solid throughout, and joined to the sockets by a broad bony 
basis, it became an instrument of enormous strength, and 
proved how formidable the animal must have been. It had 
sufficient velocity to overtake and capture fishes of immense 
size, with which the ancient seas abounded. In length it 
was about twenty-five feet ; the tail was flattened on each 
side, but high and deep, forming a straight oar of great 
strength to propel the body. 





CHAPTER XXU. 

8UBMAEINE SCENERY. 

O the eye of the experienced naturalist, how 
many, varied and beautiful, are the forms 
which meet his gaze in the transparent 
depths of the ocean! Dr. Collingwood 
describes a magnificent spectacle which he 
witnessed and declares to be truly a wonder of the deep. 
This consisted of five or six large gelatinous bodies, forming 
an oblique line, each one of a bright and delicate green color, 
and with a large rich ruby spot, which shone in the water 
hke carbuncles. Another consisted of a long and delicate 
chain, which might be compared to a necklace of diamonds 
set with brilliant rubies, the whole waving gracefully in the 
currents of the water. 

Among these marine gems of the "purest water," which 
add such splendor to the submarine scenery of the tropics, 
we may mention, also, the ruby-colored J^telis, a fish allied 
to the perch tribe — though differing, from possessing strong 
and long teeth — so named from its color, which Cuvier com- 
pared to the tints of the ruby. The eye of this splendid 
fish is a conspicuous object, and of a golden orange. The 
color of the etelis is bright ruby-red, relieved by stripes of 
bright golden yellow, which run along the ridges of the 
scales. But there are numbers of such glorious fishes — 
shoals 

" Of fish that with their fins and shinina; scales 




■^rJ^'^' 



J "II TT»|T rip' tLXJi - T f^ 



\ 



4- 



^ 










SUBMARINE SCENERY IN INDIAN OCEAN. 



376 SUBMARINE GLORIES OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 

Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft 
Bank the mid-sea ; 

Or, sporting with quick glance. 
Show to the sun their waved coats dropp'd with gold. 
Or in the pearly shells at ease attend 
Moist nutriment, or under rocks their food 
In painted armor watch." 

The Indian Ocean, one of the five grand divisions of the 
universal ocean, is especially rich in its submarine scenery. 
We dive into the liquid crystal of its waters, and it opens 
to us the most wondrous enchantments of the fairy tales of 
our childhood's dreams. The strangely branching thickets 
bear living flowers. Dense masses of Meandrinus (a genus 
of polyps), and Astreas (" a star ;" animalculse which form 
coral), contrast with the leafy cup-shaped expansions of the 
Explanarius, the variously ramified Madrepores, which are 
now spread out like fingers, now rise in trunk-like branches, 
and now display the most elegant array of interlacing 
branches. The coloring surpasses everything: vivid green 
alternates with brown or yellow; rich tints of purple, from 
pale red-brown to the deepest blue. Brilliant rosy, yellow, 
or peach-colored NuUipores overgrow the decaying masses, 
and are themselves interwoven with the pearl-colored plates 
of the Betipores, resembling the most delicate ivory carvings. 
Close by wave tlie yellow and lilac fans, perforated like 
trellis-work, of the Gorgonius. The clear sand of the bottom 
is covered with the thousand strange forms and tints of the 
sea-urchins and star-fishes. The leaf-like Flustras and Escha- 
ras adhere like mosses and lichens to the branches of the 
corals; the yellow, green, and purple-striped limpets cling 
like monstrous cochineal insects upon their trunks. Like 
gigantic cactus-blossoms, sparkling in the most ardent colors, 
the Sea- Anemones expand their crowns of tentacles upon the 
broken rocks, or more modestly embelish the flat bottom, 
looking like beds of variegated ranunculuses. Around the 



SUBMARINE GARDENS AT NIOHT. 377 

blossoms of the coral shrubs play the liumniiiig-birds of the 
ocean — little fish sparkling with red or blue metallic 
lustre, or gleaming in golden green, or in the brightest 
silvery tints. 

Softly, like spirits of the deep, the delicate milk-white or 
bluish bells of the jelly-fishes float through this charmed 
world. Here the gleaming violet and gold-green Isabelle, 
and the flaming yellow, black, and vermilion-striped coquette 
chase their prey ; there the band-fish shoots snake-like 
through the thicket, like a long silver ribbon, glittering with 
rosy and azure hues. Then comes the fabulous cuttle-fish, 
decked in all colors of tlie rainbow, but marked by no defi- 
nite outline ; appearing and disappearing, inter-crossing, 
joining company and parting again, in most fantastic ways ; 
and all this in the most rapid change, and amidst the most 
wonderful play of light and shade, altered by every breath 
Df wind and every slight curling of the surface of the ocean. 
When day declines, and the shades of night lay hold upon 
he deep, the fantastic garden is lighted up with new splen- 
dor. Millions of glowing sparks, little microscopic medusas 
and crustaceans, dance like glowworms through the gloom. 
The sea-feather, which by daylight is vermilion-colored, 
;vaves in a greenish phosphorescent light. Every corner of 
it is lustrous. Parts which by day were dull and brown, 
and retreated from the sight amidst the universal brilliancy 
Df color, are now radiant in the most wonderful play of 
green, yellow, and red light; and to complete the wonders 
Df the enchanted night, the silver disc, six feet across, of 
the moon-fish, moves, slightly luminous, among the crowd of 
little sparkling stars. 

How like a dream of romance and fairy beauty is this 
t^ivid description of submarine scenery in the tropics ! 
What exquisite loveliness exists in those still, transparent 
waters ! far exceeding in richness and coloring the most 
attractive objects that meet the eye on land. And while 



378 THE A8TEBIA8, OB STAB-FIBH. 

only a very small portion of these ocean wonders are un- 
folded to human gaze, what vast and countless glories are 
hidden in the great ocean depths to all save Him. 

The most luxuriant vegetation of a tropical landscape 
cannot unfold as great wealth of form, while in the variety 
and splendor of color it would stand far behind this garden 
landscape, which is strangely composed exclusively of ani- 
mals, and not of plants ; for, characteristic as the luxuriant 
development of vegetation of the temperate zones is of the 
sea bottom, the fullness and multiplicity of the marine Fauna 
is just as prominent in the regions of the tropics. What- 
ever is beautiful, wondrous, or uncommon in the great classes 
of fish and Ecliinoderus (animals which include the sea-urchin 
and star-flsh), jelly-fishes and polyps, and the mollusks of all 
kinds, is crowded into the warm and crystal waters of the 
tropical ocean — rests in the white sands, clothes the rough 
cliffs, clings, Avhere the room is already occupied, like a 
parasite, upon the first comers, or swims through the shal- 
lows and depths of the elements; while the mass of the 
vegetation is of a far inferior magnitude. 

The Asterias, or star-fishes, so frequently alluded to in 
the description of submarine scenery by naturalists, belong 
to a genus of molluscous worms, and some species that have 
been often observed on the sea-shore. The most curious of the 
sea-stars, perhaps, is that called Caput Medusee, or basket-fish, 
which inhabits most seas, and consists of five central rays, 
each of which divides into two smaller ones, and these 
are again divided into two others ; the same kind of division 
and subdivision being continued to a vast extent, and every 
ray regularly decreasing in size, until at length the ramifica- 
tions amount to many thousands, forming a beautiful net- 
work spread over the water. The color of the worm varies, 
being sometimes pale, sometimes reddish, white and brown. 
The arms of the star-fishes are furnished on their lower sur- 



THE FLOWERS OF THE OCEAN. 379 

faces witli suckers, wliich enable them to crawl along the 
smoothest rocks. 

The madrepores, millipores, and nullipores are polypi, 
classed in the third family of the Coralliferi, including all 
the numerous species which were for a long time regarded 
as marine plants, and in which numerous individuals are so 
united as to form compound animals, for the most part 
fixed, like plants, by a branched stem, or by simple expan- 
sions of a solid substance at the base or in the middle of the 
group. 

No more lovely ornaments of submarine gardens could 
be imagined than the Anemones, a name thus applied about 
a century ago by the indefatigable naturalist, Ellis, who 
made them the subject of some remarkable investigations, 
and who remarks that " their tentacles being disposed of in 
regular circles, and tinged with a variety of bright lively 
colors, very nearly represent the beautiful petals of some of 
our most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the 
carnation, marigold, and anemone," reminding us of what 
Du Bartas says, in his quaint poem on the birth of the 
world, that seas have 

" Pinks, gilliflowers, muslirooms, and many millions 
Of other plants." 

The reader may have seen some of the smaller species of 
anemones on the rocks of our sea-coast and in aquariums, 
but to observe these animals in their full bloom of loveliness, 
we must gaze into the transparent waters of the tropical 
seas, where they attain their greatest size and beauty, 
spreading out their delicate tentacles or " feelers," and dis- 
playing all the vivid colors which render them so remarkable. 
The similarity of some of these animal " flowers " to the 
flora of the earth is very singular. Hughes describes some 
of them as found in a submarine rock-basin: 



380 riVIB COLORS OF THE ANEMONES. 

" In the middle of it there is a fixed stone or rock which 
is always under water. Round its sides, at different depths, 
seldom exceeding eighteen inches, are seen at all times of 
the year, issuing out of little holes, certain substances that 
have the appearance of fine radiated flowers, of a pale yel- 
low or a bright straw-color, slightly tinged with green, hav- 
ing a circular border of thick-set petals, about the size of, 
and much resembling, those of a single garden marigold, ex- 
cept that the whole of this seeming flower is narrower at 
the setting on of the leaves than any flower of that kind." 

" Each following billow lifted the last foam 
That trembled on the sand with rainbow hues; 
The living flower that, rooted to the rock, 
Late from the thinner element. 
Shrank down within its purple stem to sleep, 
Now feels the water, and again 
Awakening, blossoms out 
All its green anther necks." 

This reads like a gardener's description of some new and 
rare plants. 

But the elegance and beauty of the anemones belong only 
to their native element; when left dry by the receding tide, 
they contract into a jelly-like mass, and the glorious hues 
that shone through the clear waters of the ocean fade 
away. 

'• I once cut off," adds Mr. Hughes, " with a knife which 
I held for a long time out of sight near the mouth of a hole 
out of which one of these animals appeared, two of the 
seeming leaves. These, when out of the water, retained 
their shape and color ; but being composed of a membrane- 
like substance, surprisingly thin, it soon shrivelled up and 
decayed." 

Each species generally selects a peculiar haunt, but they 
are found in every sea. Some appear suspended from the 
vaults of submarine reefs; others cover the more exposed 
sides of rocks with a sort of flower-like tapestry. 



PO WER OF REP ROD UCING ORGANS. 381 

One species commonly found on the English coasts, and 
a gem of the aquarium, is named Mesemhryanthemum, 
after the fig-marigold, an annual of English flower gardens. 
If you look attentively at one of these animals, you will be 
struck with its remarkable beauty. Around the margin of 
the mouth there is a circle of little azure knobs or knots, like 
turquoise beads. Another British anemone, called the 
(7rass/co7*n/s, exhibits the most attractive colors — red, varied 
with white, orange, green and yellow. 

The term applied by naturalists to these A^ery interest- 
ing " animal flowers" is Actinia ("' a ray"), subdivided into a 
number of genera, and is now the type of a family called 
Adiniadce. 

The sea-anemones are a hungry class, preying especially 
on small crabs, which they clasp in a fond embrace, and 
eventually devour. Another peculiarity in tliese strange 
and beautiful marine animals is their power of reproducing 
organs of their own bodies that may have been broken oft". 
Mr. Bennett relates : 

" I had once brought to me a specimen of the crassicornis, 
that might have been originally two inches in diameter, and 
that had, somehoAv, contrived to swallow a valve of Pecten 
Blaximus (a genus of two-shelled mollusks) of the size of an 
ordinary saucer. The shell, fixed within the stomach, was 
so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that 
the body, stretched tightly over, had become thin and flat- 
tened like a pancake. All communication between the 
interior portion of the stomach and the mouth was of course 
prevented ; yet, instead of emaciating and dying of an atro- 
phy, the animal had availed itself of what had undoubtedly 
been a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments 
and its chances of double fare. A new mouth furnished with 
two rows of numerous tentacula, was opened up at what had 
been the base, and led to the under-stomach : the individual 



382 CLEARNESS OF THE WATER OF THE RED SEA. 

had become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater inti- 
macy and extent in its unions." 

The anemones I need scarcely further describe to you 
except as soft fleshy bodies, with mouths surrounded by 
several rows of tentacles or feelers, which they expand 
contract, and move at will with wonderful ease, shrinking 
when touched into a solid round mass with a slippery sur- 
face, which renders it difficult to remove them without 
injury-. 

The singular clearness of the waters of the Red Sea has 
often been noticed by travelers, as presenting views of sub- 
marine scenery of the greatest beauty. 

It has been said that, when leaning over the edge of a 
boat on the smooth surface of the sea, the pebbles and the 
pure Avliite sand can be seen very distinctly at the depth of 
even one hundred and eighty feet. Through the body of 
the water can be discerned the minutest objects at an im- 
mense depth. The secrets of the deep thus laid open afford 
the most magnificent spectacle that can be conceived. In one 
part the whole forests of pale pink and red coral spread forth 
their luxuriant branches, and impart a blush to the element 
in which they grow. How varied, how beautiful is their color- 
ing! a brilliant red or blue, or gorgeous with orange or the 
deepest black. In one spot they are of a dead white or 
living purple, in another a bright yellow or crimson, and 
everywhere fancifully diversified. 

It is in the Red Sea also that the strange family to which 
the Sea-Slug and the Sea-Cucumber belong are found in 
great abundance — many of the species exhibiting splendid 
colors, and making the bottom of the sea, particularly among 
coral formations, gay and lovely as a garden. Here also are 
seen the zoophyte Gorgonias, the stem of which is usually 
brown or black, while the fleshy parts often exhibit colors of 
great brilliancy. One species, the Sea-Fan, is brought to us 
as a curiosity. Here are also the Serpula a species oi 



SUBMARINE BEAUTIES IN THE NORTH SEA. 



383 



ringed animals, like worms, inhabiting a limy tube like 
that of moUusks, which they attach to rocks and shells in 
the sea. The wide end of the tube is open, and from this 
the animal protrudes its head and gills, wdiich expand as 
beautiful fan-like tufts. They are generally most splendidly 
colored. And here also are the Sertularia, a genus of zoo- 
phytes attached to stones, shells, and sea-weeds, and very 
beautiful. 




DRAG NET. 

The waters of the North Sea, along the west coast of the 
Scandinavian peninsula, have been remarked by all ob- 
servers for being of an extraordinary transparency. " As 
we passed " (says a writer) " slowly over the surface, the 
bottom, wdiich here was in general a white sand, was clearly 
visible with its minutest objects, where the depth was from 
one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty feet. 
During the whole course of the tour I made, nothing- 
appeared to me so extraordinary as the inmost recesses of 
the deep thus unveiled to the eye. The surface of the 
ocean was unruffled by the slightest breeze, and the gentle 



384 SUBMARINE FORESTS AND MEADOWS. 

splashing of the oars scarcely disturbed it. Hanging over 
the gunwale of the boat, with wonder and delight I gazed 
on the slowly moving scene below. Where the bottom was 
sandy, the diiferent kinds of asteriee, echini, and even the 
smallest shells, appeared at that great depth conspicuous to 
the eye, and the water seemed in some measure to have the 
effect of a magnifier, by enlarging the objects like a tele- 
scope, and bringing them seemingly nearer. Now, creeping 
along, we saw, far beneath, the rugged sides of a mountain, 
rising toward our boat, the base of which, perhaps, was 
hidden some miles in the great deep below. Though moving 
on a level surface, it seemed almost as if we were ascending 
the height under us ; and when we passed over its summit, 
which rose in appearance to within a few feet of our boat, 
and came again to the descent, which on this side was sud- 
denly perpendicular, and overlooking a watery gulf, as we 
pushed gently over the last point of it, it seemed almost as 
if we had thrown ourselves down this precipice, the illu- 
sion, from the crystal clearness of the deep, actually pro- 
ducing a sudden start. Now we came again to a plain, and 
passed slowly over the submarine forests and meadows 
which appeared in the expanse below; inhabited, doubtless, 
by thousands of animals, to which they afford both food and 
shelter — animals unknown to man; and I could sometimes 
observe large fishes of singular shape gliding softly through 
the watery thickets, unconscious of what was moving above 
them. As we proceeded the bottom became no longer 
visible ; its fairy scenes gradually faded to the view, and 
were lost in the dark green depths of the ocean." 

Having briefly described some of the beautiful fishes and 
animals of the transparent tropic waters, let us consider the 
vegetation and submarine forests of the arctic waters. 

Columbus, in his search for a new world, encountered one 
of the greatest marvels of ocean vegetation — a garden of 
enormous extent in the waste of waters, which perplexed 



THE GRASSY SEA. 385 

and terrified his timid seamen, " When," as Robertson 
rehites, " about four hundred leagues to the west of the 
Canaries, he found the sea so covered witli weeds, that it 
resembled a meadow of vast extent, and in some places they 
Avere so thick as to retard the motions of the vessel. This 
strange appearance occasioned new alarm and disquiet to 
the sailors." They imagined that they had now arrived at 
the utmost boundary of the navigable ocean; that these 
floating weeds would obstruct their further progress, and 
concealed dangerous rocks, or some large tract of land that 
had sunk, they knew not how, in that place. Columbus 
endeavored to persuade them that what alarmed ought 
rather to encourage them, as it was a sign of their approach- 
ing land. At the same time a brisk gale arose, and carried 
them forward ; several land-birds were seen hovering about 
the ship, and directed their flight towards the west ; a 
whale, also, was seen heaving up his huge form in the dis- 
tance, which Columbus afiirmed was a favorable indication 
of the neighborhood of land. The desponding crew resumed 
some degree of spirit, and began to entertain fresh hopes. 

The marine vegetation that threatened to impede the 
course of the adventurous Columbus was the Gulf-weed, so 
termed from its great abundance in the Gulf of Mexico. 
The Portuguese called the waters thus covered the Grassy 
Sea, for the surface, during several days' sailing, is literally 
carpeted with the Aveed. Here the beautiful fishes of the 
warmer latitudes, 

" with fry innumerable, swarm," 

and find a refuge from their relentless pursuers in the 
ocean ; and the whole mass, extending many miles in space, 
affords food and shelter to an infinity of small marine ani- 
mals. 

In the Atlantic Ocean these sea-weeds cover an expanse 
of tAvo hundred and sixty thousand square miles, a vast mass 



386 VAST AMO UNT OF SEA - WEEDS. 

of vegetable matter that no other similarly furnished tract 
of open water is known to produce. 

These sea-weeds are occasionally thrown up by currents 
on our own shores, and may be known by the cluster of air- 
vessels that the Gulf-weed bears, and Avhich, from their ap- 
pearance, have given them the name of tropical grapes. 

How marvelous is this vast provision of Nature in the 
ocean depths for the wants and nourishment of animal life, 
all created for wise purposes by the Great Being 

" Who sleeps not — is not weary; in wliose designs 
No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts, 
And whose beneficence no change exhausts ! " 

Innumerable animalculse (visible or invisible to the naked 
eye), the chief food of the whale and also of many species 
offish eaten by man, derive their sustenance from sea-weeds. 
Myriads upon myriads of eggs of fishes find security in this 
tangled mass of sea-plants, and the young fish are sheltered 
there until they acquire strength to commit themselves to 
the water. It has been remarked that " the vegetable king- 
dom in the sea is no barren spot in the garden of Nature, 
but in usefulness and abundance it is not inferior to the 
most favored spots on land." But the character of sea-weeds 
is very different to land-plants : the former, supported in a 
liquid of greater specific gravity than themselves, do not 
require the woody fibres which are necessary for land- 
plants, except such as support themselves by climbing; and, 
::as they derive their nourishment from the water which 
•covers them, they do not need the continuous vessels which 
;are so necessary to land-plants for their growth and life. 
'This is explained by the simple experiment of placing one 
portion of sea-weed in water, and exposing the other part 
to the air, when the latter will speedily dry and wither, 
while the former retains its freshness. 

A-gain, the trees, and flowers, and shrubs which adorn 



VAST SUBMARINE FORESTS. 3S7 

our gardens require tlie bright beams of the sun to warm 
them into life and beauty; but the phuits that thrive in the 
depths of the ocean are not dependent for their existence on 
light, for only a feeble ray can reach many of them in their 
rocky homes far beneath the surface. 

Humboldt mentions the fact of a sea-weed of a fine grass- 
green color being brought up from a depth of one hundred 
and ninety-two feet, where it had vegetated, though the 
light that had reached it could not have been more than that 
aftbrded by half the light of an ordinary candle. 

Who can conceive the mighty operations of the All- 
Powerful Creator in the depths of the ocean? What transcen- 
dent wonders lie hidden in the waste waters! Let us imagine 
to ourselves vast submarine forests, which we know to exist 
— an almost boundless extent of vegetation, which lives, 
thrives, and decays, unseen by mortal eyes — how insignifi- 
cant is human comprehension! 

Viewing these tribes of sea-weed in the most careless 
way, as a system of subaqueous vegetation, we see the 
depths of ocean shadowed with submarine groves, often 
of vast extent, intermixed with meadows, as it were, of the 
most livelj hues, while the trunks of the larger species, like 
the great trees of the tropics, are loaded with innumerable 
minute kinds, as fine as silk, or transparent as a membrane. 

How singular the contrast, also, between the gigantic 
weeds that line the ocean depths, and spread forth their 
knotted shoots upon the surface of the water, and the small, 
beautifully colored, delicate plants that cling to the rocks, 
and rival in lovliness the choicest flowers of our gardens! 

On the shores of the North Pacific may be seen the Nereo- 
cystus, with a slender stem, upwards of three hundred feet 
long, bearing at its extremity a large air-vessel six or seven 
feet in length, shaped as a barrel, and crowned with a tuft 
of upwards of fifty forked leaves, each thirty to forty feet 
long, forming the fishing-grounds of the sea-otter, who can 



388 EN0BM0U8 GROWTH OF 8EA-WEED8. 

seek his prey with greater certainty amidst the shade of the 
enormous leaves. 

IntheAntartic regions the growth of sea-weeds is remark- 
able. The Tree sea-weed rises from the ocean with a huge 
stem or trunk eight or ten feet in height, and the thickness 
of a human thigh. The ends of the branches give out 
leaves tAVO or three inches broad, which, when in the water, 
hang down like the boughs of a willow. Thousands of these 
aquatic trees, uprooted by the currents, are often mistaken 
for driftwood, and are collected for fuel. Darwin mentions 
some sea-weeds that grow on the rocks in the Arctic seas, 
which, though of prodigious length, instead of being spread 
along the bottom of the ocean, are in part floated on the 
surface by means of the numerous air-vessels they contain. 
These gigantic sea-plants are sometimes fifteen hundred 
feet in length. So full of air-vessels are they, that they look 
like a honeycomb. 

One species of sea-weed in the Antarctic regions, in its 
horizontal growth at the surface of the ocean, ranges be- 
tween two hundred and seven hundred feet in length; and 
that at the Falkland Islands the beach is lined for miles 
with en tangled cables of this weed, much thicker than the 
human body. 

Opposed to these gigantic marine plants we have multi- 
tudes of smaller groAvth, combining the most delicate, beau- 
tiful, and curious characteristics of form and color, among 
which we may mention the Water Flannel, which waves 
backwards and forwards like the pendulum of a clock ; and 
some of us no doubt have often, when at the sea-side, en- 
joyed the fun of cracking the air-vessels of the Bladder- 
weed, and pulled to pieces the thready weeds that children 
call sea-silk. The sea-coasts present an exhaustless variety 
of pleasure derived from sea-weeds. There one may find 
the Whip-lash, which grows from thirty to forty feet in 
length, and is used for fish-lines in Scotland; the Net-weed, 



TUE COLORS OF SEA-PLANTS 3S9 

which spreads its delicate intcrhiced threads like a web in the 
water ; the leathery CallitJiamnion, one of the most lovely of 
sea-weeds, of a bright, fine, rosy-red color; the branches di- 
vided like the teeth of a comb. Then there is the Fern-leaf sea- 
weed, another attractive plant, and the splendid Fan-weed, 
representing a collection of hundreds of beautiful little fans, 
every one of which, if minutely examined, is of exquisite 
workmanship. On the southern coast of England is found a 
common shore-plant of the tropical seas, the Peacock's Tail, 
another lovely sea-weed. When growing, the fronds are 
rolled up into cups, while the delicate fibres with which they 
are bordered reflect the most glorious tints. Then there are 
the curious Sea-thongs or Girdles, Avliich are often seen on 
the coast, and which, when taken out of the water and held 
by the stem, resemble a flag-staff and streamers. 

The varieties of form and substance in sea-plants are also 
highly interesting subjects for comtemplation : some are like 
masses of jelly, others are elastic like India-rubber; many 
are tough as leather, others firm as wood ; some have deli- 
cate transparent leaves, others have thick, finely-veined, or 
nerveless leaves. 

The plants of the ocean gardens can vie also in glowing 
tints with many of our most attractive land-flowers. 

The natural colors of many sea-plants are exceedingly 
beautiful when viewed in their native element; but expos- 
ure to the sun and air — unless they are preserved with the 
greatest care and delicacy — causes them to fade. Those of 
the red species, Avhich abound chiefly in the temperate 
zone, acquire their richest tints in the deepest water. The 
plants of an olive color are mostly found in the neighbor- 
hood of the tropics, while the green species principally in- 
habit the polar seas. But, besides the colors mentioned, 
there are countless of other shades. 

Having alluded to the beauty and richness of ocean vege- 
tation, we Avill now mention its usefulness, in addition to the 



390 USE OF SEA-WEEDS FOR FOOD. 

shelter and nourishment it affords to the inhabitants of the 

deep. 

They soften the currents of rolling waters, and lessen the 

violence with which the waves would, otherwise, break 

upon the shores of the land. 

Darwin alludes to the value of sea-weeds to those who 
traverse the ocean : " I believe, during the voyage of the 
Beagle and Adventure not one rock near the surface was 
discovered which was not buoyed by this floating weed. 
The good services it thus affoads to vessels navigating near 
this stormy land (Terre del Fuego) is evident, and has cer- 
tainly saved many from being wrecked." 

And now let us consider the use of sea-weeds for food. 
The value of these in many parts of the world is very great ; 
the Chinese, especially are the largest consumers of any 
nation, and have various ingenious methods of preparing 
them for the table. Ceylon Moss, formerly much esteemed, is 
the product of an esculent sea-Aveed gathered on the Avest- 
ern coast of Ceylon, and possesed many nutritious quali- 
ties. Carrageen Moss is a sea-weed much used for food in 
Ireland; it is also frequently employed instead of isinglass 
for making soups and jellies. In Bavaria it serves for clari- 
fying beer. The young stalks of the Tangle-weeds, when 
well-boiled and served up with pepper and vinegar, are 
very wholesome. One species grows to the length of twenty 
feet. 

There may be found on the sea-shore a pretty weed re- 
sembling in shape the palm of a hand, with leaves, like 
fingers growing around it. This is properly called Dulse, 
and is eaten both raw and roasted, the taste resembling that 
of cooked oysters. This is also a favorite food of lobsters, 
crabs, and other shell fish. The Icelanders have a particu- 
lar relish for this sea-weed, and prepare it by drjang, when 
it gives out a white powdery substance, which is sweet and 
ralatable. Cattle are also very fond of dulse, especially 



THE VALUE OF KELP. 391 

sheep, for which reason it is often called sheep's dulse. 
These animals seek it eagerly on the sea-shore, and are 
sometimes carried away by the tide in their eagerness to 
obtain it. In Kamtchatka it is used for making a fermented 
beverage. 

The marine vegetable called Laver, so much esteemed in 
v^arious parts of England as a relish for the table, is a 
epecies of sea-weed, stewed and served as a sauce. 

The uses to which sea-Aveeds are applied are, indeed, nu- 
merous and important. We will merely mention a few. 
The ashes of marine plants afford a large quantity of soda 
«alts, and especially the carbonate, such as Kelp which is 
prepared by merely burning certain species of weeds suita- 
ble for the purpose, and this was formerly in great demand 
for the manufacture of glass, but now there is a better and 
cheaper means of getting soda from salt. 

According to Pliny, the value of soda in making glass 
was discovered by a mere accident. A vessel loaded with 
soda was once driven ashore on the coast of Palestine. 
The crew landed, and made a fire upon the sands to boil 
their kettle. They took some lumps of the soda for the kettle 
to rest upon, without the least idea of what would result. 
The soda was melted, and, uniting with the sand, formed a 
rough kind of glass. 

But kelp, although superseded in this respect, is valuable 
from the circumstance that iodine (discovered in 1811, by 
Courtois, in the waste liquors produced in the manufac- 
ture of carbonate of soda from the ashes of sea-weeds), 
which is so necessary in medicine, in photography, and 
various processes connected with the arts, is chiefly derived 
from it. Iodine exists in the waters of the ocean and 
mineral springs, marine shelly animals, and sea-vegetation 
generally, but not to the same extent as in kelp. When 
heated, iodine rises in a vapor of a violet color and this is 
condensed and solidified by a chemical process. 




the deviations of submarine currents 



CHAPTEE XXni. 

THE BED OF THE OCEAN.— BEEP SEA SOUNDINGS. 

HAT is the average depths of the sea ? Tlie 
time lias been when it was difficult to 
answer this question with any degree of 
certainty, because of the difficulty met 
with in taking soundings, caused chiefly by 
The existence of these 
currents being unknown, many marvelous soundings were for- 
merly reported ; indeed it was supposed by some that the sea 
in many places was without bottom, as apparently the longest 
line could not reach it. But when it was definitely deter- 
mined that there were many and deflecting under-currents 
running through the ocean, it was seen why the line would 
keep paying out indeflnitely, long after the weight attached 
might have reached the bottom. Many and ingenious plans 
were tried to obviate this difficulty. It remained for the 
United States Navy to solve the problem, and that, too, by a 
very simple contrivance, which will be best described by 
noting its operation. We will suppose a ship in the mid 
Atlantic. A small boat is put off from the vessel, con- 
taining the necessary crew and implements with which 
to take the soundings. As the little boat cannot be 
readily anchored, it is kept stationary by the use of the 
oars. In a convenient place in the boat lies coiled per- 
haps three miles of good stout rope. Attached to this 
rope is a sinker weighing sixty-four pounds. All is made 
ready, and it is finally cast overboard. It is carefully 
watched. By the shock felt it is decided that the weight 
has just reached the bottom. At this moment tlie line is 



DEPTHS OF THE SEA. 393 

cut. Now, how much of this line remains on the reel ? 
One halt" a mile, Ave will say, by way of" illustration. Since 
tiiere were three miles of rope on tlie reel at first, and there 
remains one-lialf of a mile, the remainder, two and onedialf 
miles, is in the water — the sea is two and one-half miles 
deep here. 

By this simple method the depths of the sea can be de- 
termined. The plan may seem an easy and novel one, but it 
has been far-reaching in its results. It opened the way for 
a series of successful experiments that have been of great 
practical benefit, and the end is not yet. It will be our 
purpose to describe as fully as the limited space will allow, 
the various steps of discovery, dependent upon this first 
step, and the controversies to which they gave rise. 

" If the waters of the Atlantic were drawn off, what a 
sight would be exposed to our view. The very ribs of the 
earth, with the foundations of the sea, would be brought to 
light, and we should have presented to us in one view, in 
the empty cradle of the ocean, a thousand fearful wrecks 
with that array of dead men's skulls, great anchors, heaps of 
pearls, and inestimable stones, which, in the poet's eye, lie 
scattered in the bottom of the sea, making it hideous with 
the sight of ugly death." 

To lay down on our maps the mountains of the earth is 
regarded as an important thing. May it not be equally of 
as much importance to bring regularly within the domain of 
science the physical geography of the sea ? By the aid of 
the deep sea soundings previously described, the greater part 
of the bed of the Atlantic has been carefully mapped out by 
the late Capt. Maury; it is to his persevering and Avell 
directed labors in this new field of discovery that we owe 
some of the conclusions recorded in this chapter. 

We had now arrived at a period of anxiety and expecta- 
tion, especially on the part of mariners and scientists. Sim- 
ply to know that tlie sea was just so deep in this or that 



394 BROOKS' SOUNDING APPARATUS. 

place was of but little importance standing alone. Explora- 
tion was investing the subject with an ever increasing 
interest. Better directed attempts began to be put forth. 
The question agitating thoughtful minds was, "of what is 
the bottom of the ocean composed ?" And again, " Can we 
determine this, and if we do, of what importance will it be 
to the world ?" The outcome of this agitation was the 
sounding apparatus invented by midshipman J. M. Brooks, 
U. S. N. With the aid of this instrument, specimens of the 
bottom of the ocean were brought up from a depth of four 
miles. One of the questions was now answered, and now 
succeeded another period of anxious expectation. The 
thoughtless might have asked : " Of what use is all this 
trouble just to procure a handful or two of mud, clay, sand, 
or of something else from the bottom of the sea ?" 

The law of gravitation has existed since time began. 
Was the discovery of it of any importance ? What impor- 
tant impulses of activity and utility came into existence 
with this discovery ? Every natural law discovered, at once 
becomes the basis of great reorganization and new inven- 
tion. The philosophers asked: "Where should this dis- 
covery be ranked," or in other Avords, "what was to be the 
use of these deep-sea soundings ?" These questions were 
difficult of answer categorically, but every physical fact, 
every expression of nature, the work of any and all of those 
agents which make the face of the world what it is, and as 
we see it, is interesting and instructive. Until a group of 
these facts are grasped, it cannot be determined what 
practical bearings they may have, though the thoughtful 
know that they contain many precious jewels which the 
experts of philosophy will not fail to bring out, polished 
and bright, and beautifully adapted to man's purposes. 

The first practical answer to the question concerning the 
use of deep sea soundings was in an attempt to utilize the 



Tin-: TEL EG It A PII PL A TEA U. 395 

knowledge in the laying of the submarine cable across the 
Atlantic. 

There is, at the bottom of this sea, between Cape Race, 
in Newfoundland, and Cape Clear, in Ireland, a remarkable 
steppe, now known as the telegraph plateau. In August, 
1858, a cable was laid upon it from Valencia in Ireland, to 
Trinity Bay in Newfoundland, and a few messages were 
passed through it when it ceased to work. This cable has 
since become a perfect success, and many others have been 
constructed, as we shall have occasion to notice in another 
chapter. Probably the first, or 1858 cable would have been 
an immediate success, had its projectors better availed 
themselves of the light which the deep sea soundings cast 
upon the bed of the ocean. This will be better understood 
as WG get further along in this subject. 

It was upon this very plateau that Brooks' sounding ap- 
paratus brought up its first trophies from the bottom of the 
sea. These specimens Avere judged to be clay. . They were 
carefully preserved and labeled and eventually sent to tlie 
proper bureau for microscopic examination. It was ascer- 
tained that all these specimens contained microscopic shells, 
calcareous and silicious, and that, too, unmixed with sand 
or gravel. Of all the specimens brought up, all were animal, 
and not one of the mineral or vegetable kingdom. The 
ocean teems with life we know, and of the four elements, 
fire, earth, air, or water, the sea most of all abounds Avith 
living creatures. These little mites of shells had not a par- 
ticle of gravel or sand among them, and it may be inferred 
from this fact that the sea there at least is at rest. There 
was not motion enough to abrade these very delicate organ- 
isms, nor currents enough to sweep them about and mix up 
with them a grain of the finest sand, nor the smallest par- 
ticle of gravel torn from the loose beds of debris that here 
and there strew the bottom of the sea. 

This plateau is not too deep for the wire to sink down 



396 EN0R3I0US WEIGHT OF WATER. 

and rest upon, yet is not so shallow that currents, or ice- 
bergs, or any abrading force can derange the wire after it is 
once lodged in its bed. 

The analysis of the treasures recovered from the rich 
bottom of the sea show us that the roaring waves and the 
mightiest billows repose upon cushions of still waters; that 
in the " blue water " the skeleton of the earth is protected, 
as with a soft garment, from the abrading action of its cur- 
rents, and that the lower stratum of its waters is so nearly 
at rest that it can neither disturb nor move the lightest bit 
of drift once lodged there. 

" The tooth of running water is very sharp. See how the 
Hudson has eaten through the Highlands, and the Niagara 
cut its way through layer after layer of solid rock. But 
what are the Hudson and Niagara, with all the fresh water 
courses of the world, by the side of the Gulf Stream, and 
other great rivers in the ocean? And what is the pressure 
of fresh water upon river-beds in comparison with the pres- 
sure of ocean water upon the bed of the deep sea? It is not 
so great in contrast as the gutters in the street are to the 
cataracts. Then why have not the currents of the sea worn 
its bottom away? Simply because they are not permitted 
to get down to it." 

A very simple calculation would show us the enormous 
weight of a simple foot square of water from the surface to 
the bottom. In round numbers such a quantity of water 
would weigh over one million pounds. Now let us multiply 
the number of solid feet indefinitely, and then take into con- 
sideration the fact that some of the ocean currents run at the 
rate of four miles an hour. Of what would the bottom of the sea 
have to be composed to stand such abrasion? The hardest 
adamant could stand no such friction. Why then has not 
the bottom of the sea been worn away? Why have not the 
currents cut through the solid crust in which its bottom is 
rocked, and ripped out from the bowels of the earth the 



CHANNEL OB' THE GULF STLtEAM. 397 

masses of incandescent, molten matter which geologists tell 
us lie pent up and boiling there? If the currents of the sea, 
with their four-mile velocity at the surface, and this immense 
pressure in its depths, were permitted to chafe against its 
bed, the Atlantic, instead of being two miles deep and three 
thousand miles broad, would, we may imagine, have been 
long ago cut down into a narrow channel that might have 
been as the same ocean turned up on edge, and measuring 
two miles broad, and three thousand miles deep; but had it 
been so cut, the proportion of land water-surface would 
have been destroyed, and the winds, for lack of area to play 
upon, could not have sucked up from the sea vapors for the 
rains, and the face of the earth would have become as a 
desert without water. 

Now there is a reason why such change should not 
take place, why the currents should not uproot nor 
scour the deep bed of the ocean, wdiy they should not throw 
out of adjustment any physical arrangement whatever in the 
ocean ; it is because that in the presence of everlasting wis- 
dom a compass was set upon the face of the deep ; because 
the waters were measured in the hollow of the Almighty 
hand ; because bars and doors w^ere set to stay the proud 
waves ; and because, when He gave to the sea His decree 
that its waters should not pass. He laid the foundations of 
the world so fast that they should not be removed forever." 

No indications of running water have been found beyond 
the depths of about three thousand feet. The various cable 
companies, in determining their routes, select such as will 
enable them to lay their cables below the lower of the dual 
currents, where they will be as free from disturbance as 
though they were resting upon dry land. Another interest- 
ing fact developed that may be noticed here, is that beyond 
a certain depth neither animal decomposition nor vegetable 
decay takes place. The most frail and delicate organisms 
of the sea can remain in its depths for an indefinite length 



398 IMPORTANT DISCO VEBIE8. 

of time without showing a single trace of decay. The en- 
tertainment of this fact suggests many beautiful fancies, 
some touching thoughts, and a few useful ideas ; and among 
these last are found reasons for the conjecture that the gut- 
ta-percha or other insulating material in which the cables 
are encased, become, when lodged beyond a certain depth, 
impervious to the power of decay ; that with the weight of 
the sea upon them, the destructive agents which are so 
busy in the air cannot here find room for play. Very curious 
it is that destruction and decay should be imprisoned and 
rendered inoperative- at the bosom of the great deep! 

How inadequately can we, with the limited space neces- 
sarily allotted to this chapter give with that detail which 
might be expected to interest the general reader, the many 
facts and fancies that ought to be recorded in dealing with 
so important a subject. 

TIius far in our treatment of the subject we have de- 
scribed with some minuteness the successful determinations 
of the actual depths of the sea with the mapping of its bot- 
tom; the fact that below certain depths the sea was at rest, 
and the other important fact, that in the deepest ocean de- 
cay does not take place. It has also been pointed out that 
so soon as these discoveries were made known they were at 
once seized and practically utilized in the laying of subma- 
rine cables for telegraphic communication to all important 
parts of the hospitable globe accessible by water communica- 
tion. Deep sea soundings are still being prosecuted in various 
parts of the world of waters, and of the laying of cables 
there seems no end. But, notwithstanding the prompt 
utilization of the discoveries already unfolded, 'there re- 
mained another important consideration in the successive 
order of the new determinations and that was whether or 
not there was life in the depths of the sea. 

Astronomers had measured the volumes and weighed the 
masses of the most distant planets. The " ooze " and bottom 



THE SEA, A GREAT NURSERY. 399 

of the ocean had remained a sealed volume, rich with ancient 
and eloquent legends, and suggestions of many an instruc- 
tive lesson that might, when rightly read, be useful and 
profitable to mankind. 

The sea, with its myths, has suggested attractive themes 
to all people and all ages. The human mind longed to know 
more of its wonders and understand its mysteries. There 
were, in its bosom, untold wonders ; therefore the contem- 
plative mariner, as in mid ocean he gazed upon its mirrored 
surface, continued to experience sentiments akin to those 
that fill the mind of the devout astronomer, when, in the 
stilly night, he looks at the stars, and wonders. 

The specimens from the bottom of the sea brought up by 
Brooks' sounding apparatus, were carefully labeled, and a 
part was sent to Professor Ehrenberg, of Berlin, and the 
remainder to the late Professor Baily, of West Point, for 
microscopic examination. After such examination the latter 
decided that the animalculte, whose remains Brooks had 
brought up from the bottom, probably did not live or die 
there. " They would have had no light there, and, had they 
lived there, their frail little texture would have been sub- 
jected, in its growth, to the pressure of a column of water 
twelve thousand feet high. They probably lived near the 
surface, where they could feel the genial influences of botii 
light and heat, and were buried in the lichen coves below 
after death." Maury says, in this same connection: 
" Brooks' lead and the microscope, therefore, it would seem, 
are about to teach us to regard the ocean in a new light. 
Its bosom, which so teems with animal life, its face, upon 
which time writes no wrinkles, makes no impression, are, it 
would now seem, as obedient to the great law of change as 
is any department whatever, either of the animal or vegeta- 
ble kingdom. It is now suggested that henceforward we 
should view the surface of the sea as a nursery teeming with 
nascent organisms, its depths as the cemetery for families of 



400 ITS BOSOM A GREAT BURIAL PLACE. 

living- creatures that outnumber the sands on the sea shore 
for multitude. Where there is a nursery, hard by there 
will also be found a grave-j-ard — such is the condition of 
the animal world. But it has never occurred to us before 
to consider the surface of the sea as one wide nursery, its 
every ripple a cradle, and its bosom one vast burial place." 

Several years ago the French Academy sent out bottles, 
and caused specimens of air from various parts of the world 
to be collected and brought home to be analyzed. The 
nicest tests which the most skillful chemists could apply 
were incapable of detecting any, the slightest, difference as 
to ingredients in the specimens from either side of the equa- 
tor, so thorough in the performance of their office are these 
agents. Nevertheless, there are a great many more demands 
on the atmosphere by the organic world in one hemisphere 
than in the other, and consequently a great many more in- 
equalities for these agents to restore in one than in the 
other. Of the two, the land of our abiding place most 
abounds with life, and consequently here there is a heavier 
burden on the air. Here the hearthstone of the human 
family has been fixed. Here, with our fires in winter and 
our crops in summer, with our work-shops, steam engines, 
and fiery furnaces going night and day, with the limitless 
demands which the animal and vegetable kingdoms are 
making upon the air above us, Ave cannot detect any dif- 
ference in the make-up of the atmosphere in different parts 
of the world; and yet, notwithstanding the perfect balances 
between the kingdoms of the organic world, there are causes 
at work in every hamlet which would produce a difference 
of adjustment were it not for these rising and falling columns 
of air ; for the obedient wind ; this ground system of circu- 
lation, these little cogs and ratchets which have been pro- 
vided for its perfect working. 

" On those parts of the solid portions of the earth's crust 
which are at the bottom of the atmosphere, various agents 




DIVER AT WORK. 



402 MYBIABS THAT MAKE THE SEA SPARKLE. 

are at work, leveling both upward and downward. Heat 
and cold, rain and sunshine, the wind and the streams, all, 
assisted by the forces of gravitation, are unceasingly wasting 
away the high places on the land, and as perpetually filling 
up the low. But it would seem that these same leveling 
agents are powerless in the deep sea. There are no abrad- 
ing processes at work there ; neither frost nor rains are felt, 
and the force of gravitation there is so paralyzed that it 
cannot use half its power, as on dry land, in tearing the 
overhanging rock from the precipice and casting it down 
ink) the valley below. Though the same agencies are not at 
work in leveling off the floor of the sea, as are changing the 
face and form of the earth, let us not forget the myriads of 
anamalculse that make the surface of the sea sparkle and 
glow with life : they are secreting from its surface solid 
matter for the seeming purpose of filling up these cavities 
below. These little marine insects build their habitations 
at the surface, and when they die, their remains, in vast 
multitudes, sink down and settle upon the bottom. . They 
are the atoms of which the mountains are formed — plains 
spread out. Our marl-beds, the clay in our river bottoms, 
large portions of many of the great basins of the earth, are 
composed of the remains of just such little creatures as these, 
which the ingenuity of Brooks has enabled us to fish up from 
the depth of nearly four miles below the sea-level. These 
J^oramini/era, therefore, when living, may have been pre- 
paring the ingredients for the fruitful soil of a land that 
■..some earthquake or upheaval, in ages far away in the future, 
may be sent to cast up from the bottom of the sea for man's 
(Qse." 

By bringing up specimens from the depths of the ocean, 
and studying them through the microscope, it has been 
ascertained that the bed of the ocean is lined Avith the 
remains of its own dead: with marine feculences which lie 



PRE8ER VA TION OF MARINE LIFE. 403 

on the bottom as lightly as rests the gossamer in a cahn at 
the bottom of the atmospheric ocean. 

The streams of running water in the oceanic machinery 
pla}' rather about its surface than in its depths; tlie causes 
that produce currents reside at and near the surface. These 
causes are changing heat and alternating cold with their 
powers of contraction and expansion — wind and sea-shells with 
evaporation and precipitation ; and it would appear that 
none of these agents seem capable of reaching very far down 
into the depths of the great sea with their influences — 
apparently not much farther down than the light can 
reach. 

"Does," says Maury, "any portion of the shells which 
Brooks' sounding-rod brings up from the bottom of the 
ocean live there, or are they all the remains of those that 
lived near the surface in the light and heat of the sun, and 
were buried in the bottom of the sea after death? Philoso- 
phers were divided in opinion upon this subject. The 
facts, as far as they went, seemed at first to favor the 
one conjecture nearly as well as the other. Under these 
circumstances, I inclined to the anti-biotic hypothesis, and 
chiefly because it would seem to conform better with the 
Mosaic account of creation. The sun and moon were set in 
the firmament before the waters were commanded to bring 
forth the living creature ; and hence we infer that light and 
heat are necessary to the creation and preservation of 
marine life : and since the light and heat of the sun cannot 
reach to the bottom of the deep sea, my own conclusion, in 
the absence of positive evidence upon the subject, has been 
that the habitat of these mites of things hauled up from 
the bottom of the great deep is at and near the surface. 
On the contrary, others maintained, and perhaps with equal 
reason, the biotic side of the question. Professor Ehren- 
burg, of Berlin, is of this latter class." We refer to and 
quote thus extensively from Maury, as at the time this 



404 CONCL U8I0N8 OF ' THE NA TUBALIST 

interesting and important discussion began, he was the great 
authority on all matters connected with the physical geogra- 
phy of the sea, having done as much, and perhaps more, 
than any other one person, in clearing up or elucidating the 
mysteries of the sea. Many of his conclusions, as novel and 
strange as they may have seemed, were at once accepted as 
indisputable facts, and passing time has proved their cor- 
rectness. Additional research and investigation has shed 
new light upon some subjects that at that time (1858) may 
have been supposed to be settled, and this subject of life 
in the deep sea may be one of tho«e questions. We shall 
present briefly both sides of the question, with the evidence 
adduced, and leave tlie reader to form his own conclusion. 

As soon as the deep-sea specimens were mounted on the 
slides of the microscope, the two great masters of that in- 
strument — Baily, of West Point, and Ehrenburg, of Berlin, 
discovered the greater part of the small calcareous carapaces 
to be filled with a soft pulp, which both admitted to be 
fleshy matter. From this fact the German argued that there 
is life at the bottom of the deep sea. Ehrenburg further 
contended that, owing to the great quantity of peculiar 
forms and of soft bodies existing in the innumerable cara- 
paces, and also the large number of unknowns, increasing 
with the depth, he was firmly of the opinion that stationary 
life existed in the deep sea. 

The anti-biotics, considering the number of unknowns 
increasing with the depths, contended that the tides, the 
currents, and the agitation of the waves all reach to the 
bottom in shallow water; that they sweep and scour from it 
the insects, and bear them ofl" into the deep water; that 
after reaching a certain depth, this sediment passes into the 
stratum of quiet waters that underlie the roaring waves and 
tossing currents of the surface, and through this layer of 
quiet waters these organic remains slowly find their way to 
the final place of repose as ooze at the bottom of the deep 



A^^I^lAL LIFE AY TJIF DEPTHS OF TlIK SEA. 405 

sea; that, thronii-h sncli ag;encies, this same deposit ought 
to be richer than that of the shaUow water witli iui'usorial 
remains. « 

Concerning the soft, pulp or fleshy matter contained in 
these calcareous remains, the anti-biotics held that the 
little creatures were preserved for a while after death, and 
until they reached a certain depth, by salt and afterward 
by pressure. We have already referred to the fact estab- 
lished that, beyond a certain depth, animal decomposition 
or vegetable decay does not take place. This fact was 
brought forward as evidence. The point claimed for it was 
that the little animals need not have lived in the depths 
of the sea, in order that their remains might be brought 
up from the bottom, still containing the fleshy matter, but 
that owing to the antiseptic properties of sea water, this 
same fleshy matter might be preserved for a long time 
after death, almost in a perfect state of preservation. 
Another argument, as regards the necessity of light and 
heat in the preservation of animal life, we referred to in the 
beginning. Finally, many of the forms brought up from the 
deep sea, were recognized as coming from fresh water 
sources, forced down by the rivers into the sea where they 
were carried along by the ocean rivers and finally deposited 
into the sea. 

The unabraded appearance of these shells, and the al- 
most total absence among them of any debris from the sea 
or foreign matter, suggests most forcibly the idea of perfect 
repose at the bottom of the deep sea. Some of the speci- 
mens are as pure and as free from the sand of the sea, as 
the snow flake that ftills, when it is calm, upon the lea, is 
from the dust of the earth. Indeed, these soundings suggest 
the idea that the sea, like the snow-cloud with its flakes 
in a calm, is always letting fall upon its bed showers of 
these microscopic shells ; and we may readily imagine that 
the "sunless wrecks," which strew its bottom, are, in the pro- 



406 DISCOVERIES AND ASCERTAINMENTS. 

cess of ages, hid under this fleecy covering, presenting the 
rounded appearance which is seen over the body of the 
traveler who has perished in the snow storm. The ocean, 
especially within and near the tropics, swarms Avith life. 
The remains of its myriads of moving things are conveyed 
by currents, and scattered and lodged in the course of 
time all over its bottom. This process, continued for 
ages, has covered the depths of the ocean as with a man- 
tle, consisting of organisms as delicate as the macled frost, 
and as light in the water as is down in the air. 

But whence came the little silicious and calcareous shells 
which Brooks' lead has brought up, in proof of its sound- 
ing, from the depth of over two miles .^" Did they live in 
the surface water immediately above? or is there a habitat 
in some remote part of the sea, whence, at their death, the 
currents were sent forth as pall-bearers, with the command 
to deposit the dead corpses where the plummet found them. 

It will be remembered that these discoveries and ascer- 
tainments were made in the period from 1850 to 1860. 
Much was crowded in this brief span of time. Philosophers 
and scientists were startled and invigorated ; all were in a 
state of earnest looking-forward-to and " What next?" and 
" What next?" was continually being asked by the thinkers. 
The period immediately succeeding this and continuing to 
the present time, has been one of remarkable activity in this 
field of research. Brooks' sounding rod and Maury's dis- 
coveries only opened the way. Later mechanical appliances 
have made that way much easier, and the results ascertained 
by the means of better conducted contrivances are more 
satisfactory. It was very confidently believed for a con- 
siderable length of time by most of those who thought at 
all on the subject, that Baily and the anti-biotics were right 
indisputably in their opinion that there was no life in the 
depths of the ocean. This conclusion is now seriously ques- 
tioned, and perhaps with reason. 



DEEP SEA DREDGING EXPEDITIONS. 407 

Follcnvinjj," Maury's researches under the auspices of the 
American navy, were several "Deep Sea Dredging Expedi- 
tions," sent out by various governments. While a detaded 
account of all these expeditions would be instructive and 
interesting, we shall have to content ourselves with but a brief 
glance at one or two only, and those sent out by the British 
government. We may refer especially to the cruises of the 
lAgJitning and Porcwpine, and the "Voyage of the Challenger ^ 
For an account of these cruises and their important deter- 
minations we are particularly indebted to Dr. C. Wyville 
Thomson, Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff of the 
Challenger Exploring Expedition. 

We shall only be able at this time to refer to so much of 
the work of these expeditious as treats of " Life in the 
Depths of the Sea." The dredging operations of the Light- 
ning and Porcupine were done during the years 1868, 1869, 
and 1870. Preceding these years this question of " life in 
the depths" had remained an open one, the majority of the 
naturalists and scientists probably inclining toward the anti- 
biotic theory. We have given at some length the opposite 
opinions of Ehrenburg and Baily. The next high authority 
who expressed an opinion was Professor Huxley, and he 
was very guarded. He says, in his report to the British 
admiralty concerning an examination he had made of sam- 
ples procured by Captain Dayman in the Cyclops in 1857: 
" How can animal life be conceived to exist under such con- 
ditions of light, temperature, pressure, and aeration as must 
obtain at these vast depths? To this one can only reply 
that we know for a certainty that even very highly orga- 
nized animals do contrive to live at a depth of three hundred 
or four hundred fathoms, inasmuch as they have been 
brought up thence, and that the difference in light and heat 
at four hundred and at two thousand fathoms is probably, so 
to speak, very far less than the difference in complexity of 
organization between these animals and the humble proto- 



408 A BRITISH SOUNDING EXPEDITION. 

zoii and Protopbyta of the deep-sea soundings. I confess, 
though, as yet, far from regarding it proved that the 
Glohigerince live at these depths, the bahmce of probability 
seems to me to incline in that direction." 

In 1860, the celebrated naturalist. Dr. Wallich, took 
part in a British sounding expedition to Iceland, G-reen- 
land and Newfoundland. During the cruise soundings 
were taken, and specimens of the bottom were brought 
up from depths from six hundred to two thousand 
fathoms ; many of these were the now well-known gray 
" Globigerina ooze." On the return voyage, about midway 
between Cape Farewell and Rockall, thirteen star-fishes came 
up from a sounding of one thousand two hundred and sixty 
fathoms, " convulsively embracing a portion of the sounding 
line which had been payed out in excess of the already as- 
certained depth, and rested for a sufficient period at the 
bottom to permit of their attaching themselves to it." Dr. 
Wallich warmly advocated the view that the conditions of the 
bottom of sea were not such as to preclude the possibility of 
the existence of even the higher forms of animal life, and dis- 
cussed fully the arguments advanced by the other side. How- 
ever, his was the expression only of an individual opinion, and 
it was thought that no new fact had been elicited. Star-fishes 
had come up on several previous occasions adhering to 
sounding lines, but the certain proof was still wanting that 
they had lived upon the ground at the depth of the sound- 
ing. 

In 1857, a cable was laid between Sardinia and Bona. In 
1858, it became necessary to repair it, and a length of about 
thirty miles was picked up and successfully replaced. In 
1860, it completely failed. In picking up a portion of this 
cable from a depth of about one thousand two hundred 
fathoms, a great many specimens of animal forms were found 
adhering to it. The condition of these forms was such as to 
indicate pretty clearl}^ that they had become attached to 



ANIMAL LIFE AT EXTREME DEPTHS. 409 

the cable while it was at rest at the bottom. " Up to this 
time," says Dr. Thomson, "all observations with reference to 
the existence of living animals in extreme depths had been 
liable to error, or at all events to doubt, from two sources. 
The appliance and methods of deep sea soundings were im- 
perfect, and there was always a possibility, from the action 
of deep currents upon the sounding-line, or from other 
causes, of a greater depth being indicated than really ex- 
isted ; and again, although there was a strong probability, 
there was no absolute certainty that the animals adhering to 
the line or entangled on the sounding instrument had actu- 
ally come up from the bottom. They might have been 
caught on the way." The animal forms upon which these 
conclusions Avere based were not sticking loosely to the 
cable, under circumstances which might be accounted for 
by their having been entangled upon it during its passage 
through the water, but they were moulded upon its outer 
surface or cemented to it by calcareous or horny excretions, 
and some of them from what is known of their history and 
life, must have become attached to it as minute germs, and 
have grown to maturity in the position in which they were 
found. This may be regarded as the best proof yet fur- 
nished of the existence of highly organized beings living at 
a depth of more than one thousand fathoms. 

During the cruises of the Lightning and Porcupine^ 
already referred to, fifty-seven hauls of the dredge were 
taken in the Atlantic at depths beyond five hundred 
fathoms, and sixteen at depths beyond one thousand fathoms ; 
and in all cases life was found in abundance. Two casts 
were taken in depths greater than two thousand fathoms. 
In both of these cases life was abundant; and with the 
deepest cast, two thousand four hundred and thirty-five 
fathoms, off tlie mouth of the Bay of Biscay, living, well- 
marked, and characteristic examples of all the five inverte- 
brate sub-kingdoms, were taken. And thus the question of 



410 GREAT PRESSURE AT TWO THOUSAND FATHOMS. 

the existence of abundant animal life at the bottom of the 
sea may be considered finally settled for all depths, for there 
is no reason to suppose that the depths anywhere exceeds 
four thousand fathoms ; and if there be nothing in the con- 
dition of a depth of two thousand five hundred fathoms to 
prevent the full development of a varied fauna, it is reason- 
able to suppose that even an additional thousand fathoms 
would not make any great difference. 

With Brooks' sounding-lead only about a handful of the 
bottom could be brought up at a time. With the dredg- 
ing appliances used in later expeditions as much as two 
hundred pounds would sometimes be brought up from the 
depths at a single haul. The operation of casting the 
dredge, and bringing it up again with its specimens from the 
bottom, is a delicate and protracted one : it sometimes re- 
quires from eight to ten hours to make a single haul. 

The conditions which might be expected to effect animal 
life at great depths of the sea are pressure, temperature, and 
the absence of light which apparently involves the absence 
of vegetable food. The conditions of pressure are certainly 
very extraoi'dinary. At two thousand fathoms a man would 
bear upon his body a weight equal to twenty locomotive 
engines, each with a good long train loaded Avith pig iron. 
We sometimes find when we get up in the morning, by arise 
of an inch in the barometer, that nearly half a ton has 
been quietly piled on us during the night; but we ex- 
perience no inconvenience, rather a feeling of exhilaration 
and buo3"ancy, since it requires a little less exertion to move 
our bodies in the denser medium. Water, we know, is very 
incompressible, and, together with this fact, we may con- 
clude that these animals in the depths are so constituted 
that they can bear whatever pressure there is, though it is 
by no means certain that these same highly organized beings 
could survive the change of condition involved in the sud- 
den removal of this pressure. 



FOOD OF BE KP WATER AXIMALS. 411 

As yet we have very little exact knowledge as to the 
distance to which the sun's light penetrates into the waters 
of tlie sea. It is certain that beyond the first filty fathoms 
plants are barely represented, and after two hundred 
fathoms they are entirely absent. The question of the 
mode of nutrition of animals at great depths becomes, there- 
fore, a very singular one. The practical distinction between 
plants and animals is, that plants prepare the food of animals 
by decomposing certain inorganic substances which animals 
cannot use as food, and recombining their elements into 
organic compounds, upon which animals can feed. This 
process is, however, so far as we are at present aware, con- 
stantly affected under the influence of light. There seems 
to be no light at the bottom of the sea, and there are cer- 
tainly no plants there except such as may sink from the 
surface, and yet the bottom of the sea is a mass of animal 
life. 

The only practical explanation relative to the mainte- 
nance of this life is, that all sea-water contains a certain 
quantity of organic matter, in solution and suspension. Its 
sources are obvious. The rivers bring in a considerable 
quantity. Every shore is surrounded by a fringe which 
averages nearh" a mile in width, of olive and red sea-weed. 
Then there is the " Sargasso-sea " or marine prairie, in the 
middle of the Atlantic, covering over three million square 
miles. The sea is full of animals which are constantly 
dying and decaying. Nearly all the animals at extreme 
depths belong to one sub-kingdom, the Protozoa; whose 
distinctive character is that they have no special organs of 
nutrition, but absorb nourishment through the whole of 
their jelly-like bodies. Most of these animals secrete 
exquisitely formed skeletons, some of silicia, some of car- 
bonate of lime. There is no doubt that they extract both 
of these substances from the sea-water ; and it seems more 
than probable that the organic matter which forms their 



412 



GREAT BANDS OF LIMESTONE FOUND. 



soft parts is derived from the same source. It is thus quite 
intelligible that a world of animals may live in these dark 
abysses, but it is a necessary condition that they must 
chiefly belong to a class capable of being supported by 
absorption through the surface of their bodies of matter in 
solution, developing but little heat, and incurring a very 
small amount of waste by any manifestation of vital activity. 




SECTIONS OP OCEAN CABLE. 



According to this view, it seems probable that in all periods 
of the earth's history some form of the Protozoa-rhizopods, 
sponges, or both, predominated greatly over all other forms 
of animal life in the depths of the warmer regions of the 
sea. The rhizopods, like the corals of a shallower zone, 
form huge accumulations of carbonate of lime, and it is 
probable to their agency that we must refer those great 
bands of limestone which have resisted time and change, 
and come in here and there with their rich imbedded letter- 
ing to mark like milestones the progress of passing ages. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 




PHENOMENA OF THE OCEAN. 

f AVIGATORS in the Northern seas have the 
opportunity of witnessing to perfection some 
curious phenomena, among which may be 
mentioned the Mirage, a name given by the 
French to an optical deception in the at- 
mosphere by wliich a ship appears as if transferred to the 
sky. Tliese appearances were regarded by the credulous, 
in former times, as supernatural; but they are referred to 
the refractive and reflective properties of the atmosphere. 
Not only is there an increase in the vertical dimensions of 
the objects affected, so that low coasts frequently assume a 
bold and precipitous outline, but objects sunk below the 
horizon are brought into view with their natural position 
changed and distorted. 

Dr. Hayes gives the following vivid description of tlie 
optical delusion: 

" These Arctic skies do sometimes play fantastic tricks, 
and on no occasion have I witnessed the exhibition to such 
perfection. The atmosphere had a rare softness, and 
throughout almost the whole day there Avas visible a most 
remarkable mirage, or refraction, an event of very frequent 
occurrence during the calm days of the Arctic summer. 
The entire horizon was lifting and doubling itself continu- 
ally, and objects at a great distance beyond it rose, as if by 
strange enchantment, and stood suspended in the air, chang- 
ing shape with each changing moment. Distant icebergs 







;Mij''S 




WATER-SPOUT. 




MIRAGE. 



MIRAGE AS WITNESSED IN ARCTIC SEAS. 415 

and floating" ice-fields, and coast-lines and mountains, were 
thus brought into view — sometimes preserving for a mo- 
ment their natural shapes, then Avidening and lengthening, 
rising and falling, as the wind fluttered or fell calm over the 
sea. The changes were as various as the dissolving images 
of a kaleidoscope, and every form the imagination could con- 
ceive stood out against the sky. At one moment a sharp 
spire, the prolonged image of a distant mountain-peak, 
would shoot up, and this would fashion itself into a cross, 
or a spear, or a human form, and would then die away, to be 
replaced by an iceberg, which appeared as a castle standing 
upon the summit of a hill, and the ice-fields coming up with 
it, flanked it on either side, seeming at one moment like a 
plain, dotted with trees and animals: again, as rugged 
mountains, and then breaking up after awhile, disclosed a 
long line of bears, and dogs, and birds, men dancing in the 
air and skipping from the sea to the sky. There was no 
end to the forms which appeared every instant, melting into 
other shapes as suddenly. For hours we watched the 'un- 
substantial pageant,' until a wind from the north ruffled the 
sea, when, with its first breath, the whole scene melted away 
as quickly as the ' baseless fabric ' of Prosperous vision." 

Another writer, during a voyage to the eastern coast of 
Greenland, was amused by the singular refractive power of 
the Polar atmosphere. The rugged surface of the coast 
assumed the form of castles, obelisks, and spires, which here 
and their were linked together, so as to present the appear- 
ance of an extensive city. At other times it resembled a 
forest of naked trees, and it was easy to conceive colossal 
statues, porticoes of rich and regular architecture, shapes of 
lions, bears, horses, etc. Ships were seen inverted, and sus- 
pended high in the air, and their hulls often so magnified as 
to resemble huge edifices. Objects really beneath the hori- 
zon Avere raised into view in a most extraordinary manner. 
It seems positively ascertained, that points on the Green- 



416 MOST BEMARKABLE ON BECOBD. 

land shore, not above three or four thousand feet high, were 
seen at the distance of one hundred and sixty miles. The 
extensive evaporation of the melting ice, with the unequal 
condensation produced by streams of cold air, are considered 
as the chief sources of this extraordinary refraction. 

The same navigator relates that when in the Polar Sea, 
his ship had been separated for some time from that of his 
father, which he had been looking out for with great 
anxiety. At length, one evening, to his astonishment, he 
beheld the vessel suspended in the air in an inverted posi- 
tion, with the most distinct and perfect representation. 
Sailing in the direction of this visionary appearance, he met 
with the real ship by this indication. It was found that the 
vessel had been thirty miles distant, and seventeen beyond 
the horizon, where her appearance was thus elevated into 
the air by this extraordinary refraction. 

Sometimes two images of a vessel are seen, the one erect 
and the other inverted, with their topmasts and their hulls 
meeting, according as the inverted image is above or below 
the other. 

The most remarkable instance of mirage that has been 
seen was that in Avhich a vessel, with all sails set, at one 
moment looked like an immense black chest, no sails or 
masts being visible. On observing her for a time, the black 
body seemed to separate horizontally into two parts, and 
two sets of mingled sails occupied the intervening spaces, 
with one set of very small sails above. The figures after- 
wards became more distinct, and three images were clearly 
discerned. Another vessel changed, also, from the form of a 
great square flat-topped chest, to five distinct images, the 
upper with the sails erect, and the two lower double images 
with their sails rather confusedly intermingled. 

Another phenomenon which is seen in its highest perfec- 
tion in the Polar seas is the Aurora Borealis, or the " North- 
ern Daybreak," so named from its appearance in that part 



AURORA BOR KALIS, OR NORTHERN BAT-BREAK. 417 

of the heavens, and its close resemblance to the aspect of 
the 8kv before sunrise. 





AURORA BOREALI> IX ARCTIC REfJIONS. 

During the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, the 
inhabitants of the Arctic zone are without the light of the 
sun for months together, and their long dreary night is re- 
lieved by the light of this meteor, Avhich occurs with great 
frequency in those regions, and the exceeding beauty of 
which those who have seen it only in our latitudes can 
hardly conceive. It is generally described as an immense 
curtain, waving its folds like the canopy of an ample tent 
agitated by the wind, and fringed with a border of light of 
+he richest colors and most vivid brilliancy. It is sometimes 



il8 OBIOIN SUPPOSED TO BE ELECTRICAL. 

seen for a few minutes only, or an hour, or through the 
whole night, and through several nights in succession. 

A dingy aspect of the sky in the direction of the north 
is generally the precursor of the Aurora, and this gradually 
becomes darker in color, and assumes the form of a circular 
segment, surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each 
end on the horizon. Sometimes the blue sky is seen between 
the cloud and the horizon. After shooting a number of rays 
or streamers, the dark part of the cloud generally changes 
and becomes very luminous. The rays continue to be shot 
from the upper edge, sometimes at some distance, or very 
close to each other. Their light is very dazzling ; bright 
columns slowly issue upwards from openiugs in the main 
cloud, becoming broader as they proceed. When the Aurora 
attains its full brightness and activity, rays are projected 
from every part of the arch, and if they do not rise too high, 
it presents the appearance of a comb furnished with teeth. 
When the rays are very bright, they assume a green, violet, 
purple or rose color, giving to the whole a variegated and 
brilliant effect. The height of the Aurora has been dif- 
ferently estimated, but it has been seldom found to exceed 
ninety miles ; but its geographical extent is enormous. The 
origin of the phenomenon is yet unexplained, but it is gene- 
rally supposed to be electrical. Franklin regarded it as the 
result of a slow and continual discharge of electric fluid 
from the atmosphere about the poles to the air above ; and 
Sir Humphrey Davy and other electricians noticed the 
striking similarity between the Northern Lights and elec- 
tricity discharged through rarefied air. 

The Aurora has been observed in almost every part of 
the world. The 'ancients regarded its appearance with 
great terror, as the precursor of dire events; and there is 
no doubt that the fiery meteors, representing to their imagi- 
nations armies fighting in the heavens, and described by 
many writers as having preceded remarkable occurrences, 



PARHELIA, OR MOCK tiUNS. 419 

must have been this phenomenon. The Indians also re- 
garded these lights as the spirits of their fathers roaming 
through the land of souls. This idea may have originated 
from the long streaks of light which spread out with incon- 
ceivable swiftness, but always appearing to move to and 
from a fixed point, somewhat like a ribbon held in the hand 
and shaken. 

Other luminous meteors are seen by the navigators of the 
Northern Ocean to perfection, arising, apparently, from the 
refraction caused by the minute and highly crystalized par- 
ticles of ice floating in the atmosphere. The sun and moon 
are often surrounded by Halos, circles of vapor, tinted Avith 
the brightest hues of the rainbow. Arctic voyagers fre- 
quently mention the fall of icy particles during a clear sky 
and a bright sun, so small as to be scarcely visible to the 
naked eye, and detected by their melting on the skin; 
and others larger, presenting a remarkably interesting ap- 
pearance. M'Clintock, in his " Voyage of the Fox," ob- 
serves: "Tlie snow crystals of last night are extremely beau- 
tiful ; the largest kind is an inch in length, and its form ex- 
actly resembles the end of a pointed feather. Stellar crys- 
tals, two-tenths of an inch in diameter, have also fallen; 
these have six points, and are the most exquisite things 
when seen under a microscope. In the sun, or even the moon- 
light, all these crystals glisten most brilliantly, and as our 
masts and rigging are abundantly covered with them, the 
'Fox ' was never so gorgeously arrayed as she now appears." 

Parhelia, or mock suns, in the vicinity of the real orb, 
shine at once in different quarters of the firmament. They 
are most brilliant at daybreak, diminish in lustre as the sun 
ascends, but again brighten at his setting. Edward Parry 
describes a parhelion of remarkably gorgeous appearance 
Tvhich he saw during a winter's sojourn at Melville Island. 
It continued from noon until six in the evening. It con- 
sisted of one complete halo, with segments of several others, 



420 THE ICE BLINK. 

displaying in parts the colors of the rainbow. Besides these, 
there was another perfect ring, of a pale white color, which 
went right around the sky parallel with the horizon, and at 
a distance from it equal to the sun's altitude, and a horizon- 
tal band of white light appeared passing through the sun. 
Where the band and the inner halo cut each other, there were 
two parhelia, and another close to the horizon, directly 
under the sun, which formed the most brilliant part of the 
spectacle, being exactly like the sun slightly obscured by a 
thin cloud at his rising or setting. 

A singular phenomenon observed on the Arctic seas by 
Mr. O'Reilly is mentioned in his account of Greenland. 
The atmosphere had been obscured by a fog, and the sun- 
light, falling on the mist, formed an ellipsis, strongly illumi- 
nated, apparently rising from the surface of the ocean to the 
upper edge of the mist. The inner edge was pearly white, 
with the faintest tinge of blue; the middle yellow, deepen- 
ing into brown and purple ; the outer edge a blackish blue. 
In the centre of this oval, Mr. O'Reilly, who had ascended 
into the hurricane house, saw reflected his whole figure, of a 
colossal size, the head surrounded by a circle of the bright- 
est rainbow colors. 

The sun, for some time before it finally departs for the 
Arctic winter, and also after its reappearance in spring, 
tinges the sky with hues of matchless splendor, which far 
outvie even the glory of an Italian sky. The edges of the 
clouds, near the sun, ( ften present a fiery or burnished 
appearance, whilst the opposite horizon glows with a deep 
purple, gradually softening into a delicate rose color of 
inconceivable beauty. 

Another phenomenon which meets the eye of the Arctic 
navigator is the Ice-blink; a peculiar brightness in the 
atmosphere which is almost always perceptiblo on approach- 
ing ice. It is a stratum of clear whiteness, occasioned evi- 
dently by the glare of light reflected obliquely from the 



TIDE RIP AND SEA DRIFT. 



421 



surface of the ice against the opposite atmosphere. This 
shining streak, which looks always brightest in clear 
weather, indicates to the experienced navigator, twenty or 
thirty miles beyond the limit of direct vision, not only to the 
extent and f^^■^re, but evoTi the quality, of the ice. 




ICE BLINK. 

Another phenomenon remarked by voyagers is the Tide 
Rip and Sea Drift. The first may be described as a commo- 
tion in the waters not unlike that produced by a conflict of 
tides or other powerful currents. These sometimes move 
along with a roaring noise, and the inexperienced navigator 
expects to find his vessel drifted by them a long way out of 
his course. But he generally finds after the commotion has 
subsided that his ship's course has not been really affected. 
This may be accounted for on the supposition of an equili- 
brium of opposing forces. The Drift is certainly a move- 
ment of the waters, though not of sufficient dignity to be 
denominated a current. If a bottle or other object be cast 
into the ocean near the equator, it will eventually bring up 
at the icy regions about the poles, and in time find its way 
back again to the tropical waters from whence it started, 
unless caught up by some of the known currents. This may 
be regarded as another evidence of the complete circulation 
of the ocean as affected by beat and cold. 



422 EVAPORATION AND PRECIPITATION. 

If a river of comparatively warm water be found in a 
cold latitude, it must have been heated in a tropical region. 
This phenomenon is a fact, and not only this, but the cold 
sea rivers may be found near the equator. The effect upon 
climate we know, and, in some sense, the cause. What a 
beautiful compensation is this regulator of marine climate! 
This Drift is irrespective and in addition to the known cur- 
rents. Its rate is nearly four knots a day. Though having 
some influence upon navigation, its effect is mainly climatic. 

As we have already said, these currents, drifts, or floes 
are well defined as to their extent, direction and effect; and 
and it will probably not be uninteresting to examine to 
some little extent the causes that bring about these phenom- 
ena, phenominal in themselves. In other chapters we have 
referred to the tiny polyps and other marine animals as 
agents in disturbing the equilibrium of the ocean — each one 
producing a ripple, the total of which amounts to a current. 

Evaporation and precipitation are other agencies we will 
now discuss. The better to understand their operation, let 
us imagine a district in the tropical waters set apart. We 
will now suppose that we have a machine large and power- 
ful enough to pump up the water one mile in depth in this 
district. It must not only force up this quantity of water 
but it must bear it away and discharge it elsewhere. We 
have, limited this comparison to arrest the attention, for 
one hundred times and vastly more than this quantity is 
pumped up daily and discharged. It can readily be imag- 
ined that this cannot be done without greatly disturbing the 
equipoise of the waters ; but it must also be remembered 
that every disturbance is compensated, and every force 
equally disturbed. Again having recourse to Maury, to 
whom we are indebted for many valuable hints relative to 
these matters, let us compute how much the fall of a single 
inch of rain over an extensive region in the sea, or how 
much the change even of two or three degrees of tempera- 



COMPAR'ISONS WITH RAIN-FALLS. 423 

ture over a few thousand square miles of its surface, tends 
to disturb its equilibrium, and, consequently, to cause an 
aqueous palpitation that is felt from the equator to the 
poles. As an example in illustration: the surface of the 
Atlantic Ocean covers an area of about twenty-five millions 
of square miles. 

Taking one-fifth of this area, Ave will suppose a fall of 
rain one inch deep to take place over it. This rain would 
weigh three hundred and sixty thousand millions of tons; 
and the salt which, as water, is held in solution in the sea, 
and which, when that water was taken up as vapor, was left 
behind to disturb equilibrium, weighed sixteen millions 
more of tons, or nearly twice as much as all the ships' in the 
world could carry at a cargo each. This rain might fall in 
an hour, or it might fall in a day ; but, occupying what time 
it might in falling, this rain is calculated to exert so much 
force — which is inconceivably great — in disturbing the 
balance of the ocean. If all the water discharged by the 
Mississippi River during the year were taken up in one 
mighty measure, and cast into the ocean at one effort, it 
would not make a greater disturbance of the sea than would 
the supposed rain-fall. Now this is but for one-fifth of the 
Atlantic, and the area of the Atlantic is about one-fifth of 
the sea-area of the world ; and the estimated fall of rain was 
but one inch, whereas the average for the year is sixty 
inches ; but we will assume it for the sea to be no more than 
thirty inches. In the aggregate, and on an average, then, 
such a disturbance in the equilibrium of the whole ocean 
as is here supposed occurs seven hundred and fifty times a 
year, or at the rate of once in twelve hours. Moreover, 
when it is recollected that these rains take place now here, 
now there ; that the vapor of which they were formed was 
taken up at still other places, we shall be enabled to appre- 
ciate the better the force and eff"ect of these irregular move- 
ments in the sea. 



\'o./.. 





FIRST STAGE OF WATER-SPOUT. 




SECOND STAGE OP WATER- SPOUT. 



PERILOUS ESCAPE FROM A WATER-SPOUT 425 

The Greeks applied the term "prester^^ to the water- 
spout, which signifies a fiery fluid, from its appearance be- 
ing- generally accompanied with flashss of lightning and a 
sulphureous smell, showing the activity of the electrical 
principle in the air. 

A few minutes suffices in general for the duration of this 
phenomenon, but several have been known to continue for 
nearly an hour. In the Mediterranean as many as sixteen 
water-spouts have been observed at the same time. The 
principal danger seems to be from the wind blowing in sud- 
den gusts in their vicinity from all point of the compass, 
sufficient to overwhelm small vessels carrying much sail. 

Mr. Ellis, in a cruise amongst the islands of the Pacific 
Ocean, had, on more than one occasion, a perilous escape 
from these phenomena. At one time the weather seemed 
clearing from a previous storm, when one of the native 
boatmen pointed to a large cylindrical water-spout, extend- 
ing like a massive column from the ocean to the dark im- 
pending clouds: 

" It was not very distant, and seemed moving toward 
our apparently devoted boat. The roughness of the sea 
forbade our attempting to hoist a sail in order to avoid it; 
and as we had no other means of safety at command, we 
endeavored to calmly await its approach. The natives 
abandoned themselves to despair, and either threw them- 
selves along at the bottom of the boat, or sat crouching on the 
keel, with their faces downward and their eyes covered 
with their hands. The sailor kept at the helm. Mr. Barff 
sat on one side of the stern, and I on the other, watching 
the alarming object before us. While thus employed we 
saw two other water-spouts, and subsequently a third, if not 
more, so that we seemed almost surrounded with them. 
Some were well defined, extending in an unbroken line from 
the sea to the sky, like pillars resting on the ocean as their 
basis, and supporting the clouds; others assuming the shape 



426 PERILOUS ESCAPE FROM A WATER-SPOUT. 

of a funnel or inverted cone, attached to the clouds, and ex- 
tending toward the waters beneath. From the distinct- 
ness with which we saw them, notwithstanding the density 
of the atmosphere, the farthest could not be many miles dis- 
tant. In some we could imagine to have traced the spiral 
motion of the water as it was drawn into the clouds, which 
were every moment augumenting their portentous darkness. 
The sense, however, of personal danger and immediate 
destruction if brought within the vortex of their influence, 
restrained in a great degree all curious, and what, in other 
circumstances, would have been interesting observation on 
the wonderful phenomena around us, the mighty agitation 
of the elements, and the terrific sublimity of these wonders 
of the deep. 

" The roaring of the tempest, and the hollow sounds that 
murmured on the ear as the heavy billows rolled in foam or 
broke in contact with opposing billows, seemed as if deep 
called unto deep, and the noise of the water-spouts might 
almost be heard, while we were momentarily expecting that 
the mighty waves would sweep over us. Our prayers were 
offered to Him who is a very present help in every time of 
danger, for ourselves and those who sailed with us; and 
under these or similar exercises several hours passed away. 
The storm continued during the day. At intervals we 
beheld, through the clouds and rain, one or other of the 
water-spouts, the whole of which appeared almost stationary, 
until at length we lost sight of them altogether, when the 
spirits of our native voyagers evidently revived." 

The natives of the South Sea Islands, although scarcely 
alarmed at thunder and lightning are at sea greatly terrified 
by the appearance of water-spouts. They occur more fre- 
quently in the South than in the North Pacific, and although 
often seen among the Society Islands, are more rarely met 
with in the Sandwich group. But throughout the Pacific, 
water-spouts of varied form and size are among the most fre- 



TORNADOES AND TYPHOONS. ^11 

quent of the splendid phenomena and mighty works of tlie 
Lord which those behold who go down to the sea in ships, and 
do business upon the great waters. They are sublime objects 
of unusual interest when viewed from the shore; but when 
beheld at sea, especially if near, and from a small and fragile 
bark, it is almost impossible so to divest the mind of a sense 
of personal danger as to contemplate with composure their 
stately movement, or the rapid internal circular eddy of the 
waters. 

The Tornado — which, however is a general term em- 
ployed to designate what is called a hurricane or whirlwind 
— is a sudden and violent storm of wind, accompanied b}^ 
lightning and heavy torrents of rain, occurring frequently 
in -the Indian Ocean, on the coasts of Africa, and other 
places in the tropics. While the tornado is passing over a 
ship, a loud creaking noise, occasioned by the electric fluid 
descending along the masts, is distinctly heard amongst the 
rigging. After the squall has passed beyond the ship, the 
lightning again appears to descend in sheets, as they did on 
its approach. Typhoons have their origin in the ocean to 
the east of China immediately about Formosa, Luzon, and 
the islands immediately to the south, and their course is 
generally along the coast of China. The body of the storm 
advances at the rate of twelve miles an hour. It is very 
probable that typhoons arise from opposing aerial currents, 
each highly charged with moisture which they have taken 
up from the oceans they have traversed; and their intensity 
is aggravated by the large quantity of heat disengaged in 
the condensation of the vapor of the atmosphere into the 
deluges of rain which fall during the storm. 

The Trade-Winds, which are classed under the designa- 
tion of " constant" winds, probably owe the origin of their 
name to the facilities afforded to trade and commerce by 
their constant prevalence and uniform course. They ar» 
perpetual in the torrid zone, blowing from the eastward with 



428 THE TRADE -WINDS. 

little variation. They were not known to the ancients, and 
seem to have been unknown even to modern seamen up to 
the time of Cohnnbus, who had passed some time at the 
Canaries, to which the trade-winds extend in summer, and 
who seems to have conceived a just idea of their extent. 
On his first voyage, after leaving the Canaries, his crew 
were greatly alarmed at finding that the wind always blew 
from the north-east or east, and feared they would be pre- 
vented by it from returning to their native country. Colum- 
bus, however knew otherwise, and on his return from the 
newly discovered islands his tack was north of the trade- 
winds, in the region of the changeable winds. After the 
time of Columbus, European navigation extended rapidly in 
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and the trade-winds became 
gradually known. 

Seamen dwell with delight in the region of the trade- 
winds, not only on account of the favoring gale, but its 
genial influence, the transparent atmosphere, the splendid 
sunsets, and the brilliancy of the unclouded heavens day and 
night. The origin of the trade-winds is ascribed to the rare- 
faction produced in our atmosphere by the apparent diurnal 
progress of the sun. It appears that the heat caused by the 
sun in the air is strong enough to produce this rarefaction 
to an extent of about sixty degrees of latitude, as the trade- 
winds, including what is termed the '' region of calms,", ex- 
tend over such a portion of the globe. In this immense 
space the rarefied air is replaced by the colder and denser 
air which rests over the region contiguous to that of the 
trade-Avinds, and this transportation of air is the trade-wind. 

It may not be entirely out of place here to say a few 
words respecting Atmospheric Currents, and to hazard a few 
conjectures respecting other causes than those mentioned 
that are among the agents producing the trade-winds and 
their ''eastings." 





Mil 





430 CUBRE.NT8 OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 

The physical laws of the sea were created by God. To 
the devout even so simple a statement would be sufficient 
to awaken holy and reverential feelings; but the skeptic, in 
whom is no faith, wants to see. The more closely we exam- 
ine the works of creation the more we must revere the 
Creator. It is impossible to escape the conviction that 
nothing in this admirable system is the result of accident, 
but on the contrary we are forced to admit that all is the re- 
sult of wonderful and perfect design, and what is of still more 
consequence, this perfectly adjusted mechanism is arranged 
for the happiness and comfort of unthankful humanity. 

The circulation of the currents of atmosphere is as well 
defined as are the currents in the seas. The wind strata 
constantly flow from the poles to the equator, and of course 
they must return there ; therefore wo may conclude that 
each current is dual. These direct and opposite currents 
are forced to move in a sort of a curve, turning to the west 
as they leave the poles for the equator, and in the opposite 
direction when they return — this turning being caused by 
the rotation of the earth on its axis. " Thus, in substance," 
says Maury, " the laws of motion, the force of gravity, and 
the shape of our planet all work together in compelling 
every wind either to force air up from the surface into the 
higher regions, or to draw it down to us from the azure or 
starry expanse above." By this everlasting agitation, or 
mixing up, the surface of the globe is kept in that condition 
so necessary and requisite to our well-being. Every ex- 
haled breathj kindled blaze, and every atom of vegetation 
. that grows and decays, adds something that is poisonous or 
takes away something that is healthful from the air around. 

The agents of the air, appointed to maintain its chemical 
status, preserve its proportions, and adjust its ingredients 
to keep them in that state best calculated for the purpose 
intended, do not dally in the performance of their various 
offices. 



LIFE-GIVING EFFECTS OF CIRCULATION. 431 

If the air that is inhaled were not taken from us and re- 
newed, warm-blooded life would cease to be ; if the con- 
stituents of the air, carbon, oxyg'on, hydrogen, and water, 
were not in proper quantities given on'^ by the ever-moving 
air to the flora of the world, all vogctation would perish. 
But we are saved from this calamity by this wind that 
brings down fresh supplies of life from above, and takes up 
from the earth that which has become stale. In the labora- 
tory aloft the noxious gases are deflagrated among the 
clouds, purified and made over by ways known only to Him 
whom they obey. The cry going up from the crowded 
cities for fresh air from the mountains or the ocean, is a 
constant reminder of the life-giving virtues of circulation. 

The study of its mechanism is good and wholesome in its 
influences, and the contemplation of it is well calculated to 
excite in the bosom of right-minded philosophers the deep- 
est and best of emotions. 

" How minute, pervading and general, sure, and perfect 
must be that system of circulation w^hich invests the atmos- 
phere and makes the ' whole world kin.' " We can imagine 
the lither sky filled with crystal vessels continually ascend- 
ing and descending between the bottom and the top of the 
atmospheric ocean full of life-giving air; these little buckets 
are let down by invisible hands from above, and as they are 
taken up again, they carry off from the surface, to be puri- 
fied in the work-shop of the heavens, phials of mephitic 
vapors and noxious gases, with the dark and deadly air of 
marshes, ponds and rivers. 

Among the many offices assigned by their Creator to the 
ocean and air currents, two may be particularly noticed in 
this connection : first, to act and react upon each other, and 
second, to distribute moisture over the surface of the earth, 
thus tempering the climate of different latitudes. When the 
northeast and southeast trades meet and produce the calms 
at the equator, the air, by the time it reaches this belt, is 



432 MIGHTY RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 

full of moisture, for in each part of the world it has traveled 
obliquely over a vast extent of ocean. In one sense these 
air currents may be said to terminate here — it is the end of 
their lateral direction. They have but one way to escape, 
and that is in an upward direction. As they turn about and 
go up, they expand and become cooler; a portion of the 
vapor that they have carried in their clasp is thus pressed 
together and comes down in the shape of rain. Therefore it 
is that it rains here almost continually. Old sailors tell us 
that the precipitation is so great and constant here, that 
they can frequently scoop up fresh water from the sea to 
drink. All the moisture that the air has taken up in its ap- 
pointed journey across the waters, is not deposited in the 
calm belts: Let us enquire as to what becomes of the rest; 
for it must be understood that nature takes nothing from 
the earth that she does not give back again in some form or 
other. We see the great rivers constantly discharging 
great bodies of water into the ocean, and yet "the sea is not 
full." Whence do these waters come and whither go? That 
they come from their sources we know, but how are these 
beginnings supplied? The fountains must be renewed con- 
stantly or they would soon be exhausted. "The springs of 
these rivers are supplied from the rains of heaven, and these 
rains are form of vapors which are taken up from the sea, 
that "it be not full," and carried up to the mountains 
through the air. Note the place whence the rivers come, 
thither they return again. Picture now the mighty rivers 
of America, Europe and Asia, drawn up by the atmosphere, 
and rushing along in visible st"eams back through the air 
to their beginnings in the mountains, and that, too, by the 
way of channels so regular, sure, and well-defined, that the 
amount thus carried year by year is nearly the same. 

This apparently capricious atmosphere is a mighty ma- 
chine. It performs its office with regularity and certainty, 
and is as obedient to law as is the steam engine to the will 



Moxsooys. 433 

of its builder. " It, too, is ;m engine," — the South seas be- 
ing the boiler, and the northern hemisphere the condenser. 

How admirable is the system of terrestrial adaptations! 
A little study of this system would show us why the pro- 
portions between the land and the water were arranged as 
we find them. With more water and less land we should 
have had more rain than we now have ; with more land and 
less water we would have less rain; then, indeed, the climate 
would have been different over the whole face of the earth, 
and the inhabitants could not have existed as the}^ are. 
The unthinking may marvel that God should number the very 
hairs of your head and note the sparrows fall ; but what 
shall we say when we contemplate the earth as a Avhole, 
and from such points of view as we have presented? The 
sea, the air and the land, together with the mechanism of 
each, prove the most simple that each and all "have their 
origin in one " Omniscient idea." 

The Monsoon is a term applied to periodical winds which 
prevail almost entireh' in the northern part of the Indian 
Ocean. The force with which these winds blow is much 
greater than that of the trade-winds. It is frequently im- 
possible to stem their violence in any way. Many vessels 
which have endeavored to force their way against them have 
been compelled to give in and to enter the nearest harbor. 
Other vessels are obliged to change their course, and to 
reach their destination by following a different track, wide 
of the straight route, and thus avoiding the monsoon. But 
although these winds, to vessels which miss the right season, 
render their voyages long and laborious, yet they greatly 
favor those of ships that arrive at the right period. It is 
chiefly by the assistance of the north-east and north-west 
monsoons that the voyages of merchant vessels bound from 
Canton to England are accomplished in short periods. 

Monsoons, when compared with the trade-winds, exercise 
a most beneficial and important oiSce in nature, especially 



434 BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MONSOONS. 

ill their relation to rain-fall, the fertility of the greater part 
of Southern Asia being entirely due to them. The shift- 
ings of the monsoons is not all at once, and in some places 
the time of the changes is attended with calms, in others 
Avith variable winds; and particularly those of China, at 
ceasing to be westerly, are frequently very tempestuous, 
and such is their violence that they seem to be of the nature 
of the West India hurricanes. 

The monsoon commences with great severity and pre- 
sents an awful spectacle ; the inclement weather continues, 
with more or less violence, from May to October. During 
that period the tempestuous ocean rolls from a black hori- 
zon, literally of " darkness visible," a series of floating- 
mountains, heaving under heavy summits, until they ap- 
proach the shore, when their stupendous accumulations flow 
in successive surges, and break upon the beach. Every 
ninth wave is observed to be generally more tremendous 
than the rest, and threatens to overwhelm the settlement. 
The noise of these billows equals that of the loudest cannon, 
and, with the thunder and lightning so frequent in the rainy 
season, is truly awful. 

It is not easy to explain the origin of the monsoons; 
they appear to be only a modification of the trade-winds, 
produced by the peculiar form of the countries lying within 
and around the Indian Ocean. 

The lightning attending these phenomena is described 
as fearfully vivid, realizing the description of a storm b;* 
Shakespeare : 

" I have seen 
The ambitious ocean swell, and rage, and foam. 
To be exalted with the threat'ning clouds; 
But never till to-night, never till now, 
Did I go through a tempest dropping fire. 
Either there is a civil strife in heaven, 
Or else the world, too saucy with the gods. 
Incenses them to send destruction. 



HURRICANES AND CYCLONES. 435 

Such sheets of fire, such bursts of horrid thunder, 
Such groaus of roaring wind and rain." 

Other appalling phenomena that we may mention are 
Hurricanes or Cyclones; revolving- winds, which appear to 
originate not far from the west coast of Africa, Avhere they 
move in a more or less north-westerly course, until they 
reach our coast, where they begin to turn, and continue to 
the north-east, the vortex gradually widening, until they 
are lost in the ocean between Iceland and the British isles. 
These do not follow a straight line, but adopt a whirling 
course. The cyclones vary in breadth from fifty to five 
hundred miles, sometimes contracting, and in that case in- 
creasing fearfully in violence. 

The direct causes of these terrible atmospheric distur- 
bances are not precisely determined ; they may arise from 
an electric condition of a portion of the atmosphere (in- 
deed, atmospheric changes of every kind seem to be con- 
nected Avith electricity), or the sudden heating of the air 
over some insulated portion of the African mainland, 
although there is ground for believing that they are not 
occasioned by heat alone. 

Hurricanes have been more terribly destructive than 
even earthquakes. The '"Great" hurricane which com- 
menced at Barbadoes in 1780, was so termed from its terri- 
Tjle results. The verv bottom and depths of the sea seemed 
to be uprooted, and the waves rose to such a height that 
forts were washed away, and their guns carried about in the 
air like chaff; houses were raised and ships were wrecked, 
l»odies of men and beasts were lifted up in the air and 
dashed to pieces. At the different islands not less than 
twenty thousand persons lost their lives on shore; while, 
farther to the north, the "Stirling Castle" and the '"Dover 
Castle," men-of-war, went down at sea, and fifty vessels were 
driven on shore at the Bermudas. During a hurricane at 




HUREICANE. 




THE BORE. 437 

Guadaloiipe, in January, 1825, a brig was whirled out of the 
water, and actually blown to pieces in the air. At St. Yin- 
cent's, in 1831, the water of the sea was raised to such a 
height as to flood the streets. The waves broke over cliffs 
seventy feet high. A very remarkable cyclone, or spiral 
hurricane, passed over a portion of England and the British 
and St. George's Channels during the autumn of 1859, de- 
stroying an enormous amount of shipping. The cyclone in 
Calcutta, in 1864, was one of the most awful events on 
record, of which there is no parallel except that in 1832; 
but even the latter was not so disastrous in its effects. Up- 
wards of three hundred ships were wrecked or irreparably 
damaged, and the results on shore were appalling. 

The noise of the wind in hurricanes is described by a 
seaman " as the most tremendous unearthly screech he had 
ever heard." The electric phenomena that sometimes 
attend hurricanes are very curious. One captain of a vessel 
states: "For nearly an hour we could not observe each 
other, but merely the lightning; and most astonishing, every 
one of our finger-nails turned quite black, and remained so 
nearly five weeks afterwards." 

The Bore, a sudden and impetuous flow of the tide, is one 
of the most astonishing sights that can be witnessed on the 
sea-coast. At stated periods this tremendous tidal-wave 
comes rolling from the sea, threatening to everwhelm every- 
thing that moves on the beach. In certain parts of the Bay 
of Fundy the bore is more impetuous and higher — some- 
times exceeding eighteen feet — than, perhaps, in any other 
part of the world. It comes in with such force and rapid- 
ity, with a noise resembling distant thunder, as sometimes 
to dash vessels on the shore. It is said also to overtake 
deer, swine and other beasts that feed on the beach, and 
swallow them up before the swiftest feet among them have 
time to escape. The swine, as they feed on mussels at low 
water, are said to sniff the bore, either by sound or smell, 



438 THE EAGRE DESCRIBED. 

and generally dasli tip the cliffs before it rolls in. The bore 
is caused by the compression of the mass of advancing 
waters into a gradually narrowing channel. We quote from 
Maury's "Physical Geography of the Sea," the following 
incident: 

"Dr. McGowan, an eye-witness, describes the bore or 
eagre of the Tsien-Tang River, as follows: At the upper 
part of the Bay, and about the mouth of the river, the eagre 
is scarcely observable ; but, owing to the gradually descent 
of the shore, and the rapidity of the great flood and ebb, 
the tidal phenomena even here present a remarkable ap- 
pearance. Vessels, which a moment before were afloat, are 
suddenly left high and dry on a strand nearly two miles in 
width, which the returning wave as quickly floods. It is 
not until the tide rushes beyond the mouth of the river that 
it becomes elevated to a lofty wave constituting the eagre, 
which attains its greatest magnitude opposite the City of 
Hang-Chow. 

Generally there is nothing in its aspect, except on the 
third day of the second month and on the eighteenth of the 
eighth, or at the spring tide about the period of the vernal 
and autumnal equinoxes, its great intensity being at the 
later season. Sometimes, however, during the prevelance 
of easterly winds, on the third day after the sun and moon 
are in conjunction or in opposition, the eagre courses up 
the river with hardly less majesty than when paying its 
ordinary periodical visit. Between the river and the city 
walls, which are a mile distant, dense suburbs extend sev- 
eral miles along the bank. As the hour of flood tide ap- 
proached, crowds gathered in the streets running at right 
angles with the Tsien-Tang, but at safe distances. My 
position was on a terrace in the front of the Tri-Wave Tem- 
ple, which afforded a good view of the entire scene. On 
a sudden all trafiic in the thronged mart was suspended: 
porters cleared the front street of every description of 



ITS IMMENSE HEIGHT. 439 

merchandise, boatmen ceased lading and unlading their 
vessels, and put out into the middle of the stream, so that a 
few moments sufficed to give a deserted appearance to tlie 
busiest part of one of the busiest cities of Asia. The centre 
of the river teemed Avith craft, from small boats to large 
barges, including the gay flower-boats. Loud shouting from 
the fleet announced the appearance of the flood, which 
seemed like a glittering white cable, stretched athwart the 
river at its mouth, as far down as the eye could reach. Its 
noise, compared by Chinese poets to that of thunder, 
speedily drowned that of the boatmen; and as it advanced 
with prodigious velocity — at the rate, I sliould judge, of 
twenty -five miles an hour — it assumed the appearance of an 
alabaster wall, or, rather, of a cataract four miles across and 
about thirty feet high, moving bodily onward. Soon it 
reached the advanced guard of the immense assemblage of 
vessels awaiting its approach. As the foaming wall of 
water dashed impetuously onward, the vast multitude were 
silenced, all being intensely occupied in keeping their prows 
toward the wave, which threatened to submerge everything 
afloat ; but they all vaulted, as it were, to the summit with 
perfect safety. The spectacle was of great interest when 
the eagre had passed about one half Avay among the craft. 
On one side they were quietly reposing on the surface of 
the unruffled stream, while those on the nether portion were 
pitching and heaving in tumultuous confusion on the flood •, 
others were scaling with the agility of salmon the formidable 
cascade. This grand and exciting scene was but of a 
moment's duration ; it passed up the river in an instant, but 
from this point, with gradually diminishing force, size, and 
velocity, until it ceased to be perceptible, which Chinese 
accounts represent to be eighty miles distant from the 
city. From ebb to flood tide the change was almost instan- 
taneous; a slight flood continued after the passage of the 
wave, but it soon began to ebb. 



440 SUBMARINE EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES. 

A very short period elapsed between the passage of the 
Eagre and the resumption of traffic. Tiie vessels were soon 
attached to the shore again ; women and children were oc- 
cupied in gathering articles which the careless and un- 
skillful had lost in the a.quatic melee. The streets were 
drenched with spray, and a considerable volume of water 
splashed over the banks into the head of the grand canal, a 
few feet distant. 

Among the most extraordinary phenomena in the universe 
is the volcanic action at the bottom of seas, by the upheaval 
of wdiich islands are produced, the form, magnitude and 
character of which depend on that of the upheaved mass. 
In general these islands rise suddenly, and their appearance 
is attended with all the phenomena that accompany erup- 
tions: they are seen for some time, and then gradually dis- 
appear. When the dome, upheaved from the bottom of the 
3ea, breaks at the summit so as to form a crater, a part of 
the circular rampart is sometimes destroyed, so that the sea 
enters, and an enclosed bay is formed, where innumerable 
tribes of coral animals build their cells. 

Within the Atlantic Ocean no less than five great, and 
probably connected, centres of volcanic action exist. Iceland, 
the Azores, the Canaries, the Cape de Verd, and the West 
Indian Islands, besides many other points (Ascension, St, 
Helena, St. Paul's, etc.) at which extinct volcanic phenomena 
are visible. A remarkable submarine volcanic tract has 
been added to them, forming a belt about seventy miles 
from the equator on the south side. In the middle of the 
seventeenth century there were great and disastrous shocks 
in the Mediterranean basin. 

A series of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, appa- 
rently connected with each other, occurred in 1811 and 
1812 in the countries surrounding the Columbian sea. The 
subterranean force first tried to open a vent by means of 
a submarine eruption in the Atlantic. Shocks of earthquake 



jsLAyjjs jiisiXG FitOM Tin: SEA. 441 

were for several Jays felt in the island of St. Miguel, one of 
the Azores, and on the 30th of January, 1811, large volumes 
of smoke, with which flames were observed to mingle, were 
seen issuing from the surface of tlie sea, at a distance of a 
few miles from the western coast of the island. They threw 
np mud, stones and other matter, which in a short time ac- 
cumulated, so as to form a small island, which was called 
Sabrina; this disappeared after a few months in the sea. 
In 1831 an island rose out of the sea between the town of 
Sciacca, in Sicily, and the volcanic island of Pantellaria. Be- 
fore any appearance of a change was observed in the sea, 
the inhabitants of Sciacca were alarmed by a number of 
very smart shocks of earthquake, of which two might be 
called severe. An Italian vessel passing near the place 
where, afterwards, the island rose out of the sea, observed 
a great disturbance of the waters at that spot. According 
to his statement a considerable space of the surface of the 
sea was seen rising to an elevation of from eighty to ninety 
feet above its level ; the water appeared to bubble as if 
boiling, and the phenomenon was attended by a noise like 
thunder. After this agitation had lasted about teu minutes, 
the watery mass sank to the sea level, but after some time 
rose again. These risings of the water were repeated at 
irregular intervals of ten, fifteen and twenty minutes. A 
thick cloud of smoke, which enveloped the whole horizon 
issued from the raised mass of water. The surface of the sea 
surrounding the raised mass was also considerably agitated, 
and a number of dead fish were floating about. For several 
days the atmosphere surrounding the town of Sciacca was 
dim and foggy, so that it was impossible to see what was 
going on at sea. On the 12th of July, in the morning, peo- 
ple Avere surprised at finding on the surface of the sea, in 
front of the town, a quantity of small porous ashes, which 
had been carried there by a fresh breeze from the south- 
west. At the same time a very unpleasant'smell of sulphu- 



442 THE CA USE OF UP-HEA VING. 

ric hydrogen gas incommoded .the inhabitants of the town 
and the country near. Dead fish, recently killed, were 
floating in all directions. 

Captain Senhouse effected a landing on the island thus 
formed, took possession of it, and called it Graham Island. 
He found the form of the crater to approach that of a per- 
fect circle, and to be complete along its whole circumfer- 
ence, excepting for about two hundred and fifty yards on 
the south-east side, which was broken and low, apparently 
not above three feet high. The whole circuit of the island 
he conceived to be from a mile and a quarter to a mile and 
one-third. In the month of December following the whole 
island had disappeared. 

The island of Santorin, one of the Greek islands called 
the Cyclades, is one of the most extraordinary instances of 
submarine volcanic action. During the last two thousand 
years several new islands have been formed in this locality, 
and singular phenomena have been exhibited even of late 
years. 

Earthquakes are very closely related to volcanoes, 
although by no means confined to volcanic districts. In- 
stances of this phenomenon at sea are frequently recorded 
b}^ navigators. In most cases the motion felt on board is 
compared with that experienced when a ship strikes on a 
rock under water. During the earthquake at Lisbon, an 
English vessel, sailing at a distance of about fifty miles from 
the coast of Portugal, experienced a shock of such violence 
that a part of the deck was damaged. The captain, much 
surprised, thought that a great mistake must have crept 
into his reckoning, and that his vessel had got on a rock. 
He gave orders to put out the long boat, to save the crew, 
but he was soon convinced there was no danger. The 
source whence earthquakes originate, the power by which 
the ground is convulsed, is withdrawn from our investiga- 
tion. The eye of the most inquisitive naturalist cannot 



RED FOG OR SllO WKR-D UST. 443 

reach it. The substances whicli arc brought up by earth- 
quakes bear evident signs of having endured the action of 
fire. It is supposed that these phenomena are produced by 
the efforts of accuniuhited elastic vapors to escape from the 
bowels of the earth. 

Another phenomenon we may allude to is the Red-Fog or 
Shower-Dust, encountered by vessels at sea occasionally, 
and especially in the vicinity of the Cape de Verd Islands. 
What these showers precipitate in the Mediterranean is 
called " sirocco-dust," and in other parts " African dust," 
because the winds which accompany them are supposed to 
come from the Sirocco desert, or some other parched land of 
the continent of Africa. The dust is of a brick-red or cin- 
namon color, and it sometimes comes down in such quanti- 
ties as to cover the sails and rigging, though the vessel may 
be hundreds of miles from the land. This dust, when sub- 
jected to the microscope, is found to consist for the most 
part of exceedingly minute animal and vegetable organisms, 
probably derived from some of the great river valleys of 
South America, being lifted up in vast clouds of impalpable 
sands by the fierce gales of the equinox. 





CHAPTER XXV. 

OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. 

E assume that there is much interest felt by all 
classes respecting these " ocean palaces." 
One cannot take up a daily paper of any 
pretensions without noticing the arrival or 
departure of many vessels of this class ; 
and yet, though we become so familiar with their names and 
destinations, and so many of our friends are making them 
their homes for a time, we may, notwithstanding this, have 
but little conception of their magnitude or conveniences. 

Every school-boy in the land is familiar with the name 
of Fulton. No school history would be complete without a 
mention of the Clermont, the first steamship, of 140 feet 
keel, IGJ feet beam, and rate of speed five miles an hour. 
A writer, in speaking of her first trip from New York to 
Albany in 1807, sa3's: 

" The vessel presented the most terrific appearance. The 
dry pine wood fuel sent up many feet above the flue a col- 
umn of ignited vapor, and when the fire was stirred, tre- 
mendous showers of sparks. The wind and the tide were 
adverse to them, but the crowds saw with astonishment the 
vessel rapidly approaching them; and when it came so near 
that the noise of its machinery and paddles was heard, 
the crews of other vessels, in some instances, shrunk 
beneath their decks from the terrific sight ; while others 
prostrated themselves, and besought Providence to protect 
them from the approach of the horrible monster which was 



,irri,ii]iiiiu''in;ii'i|ii)iii::i!:i!i!(l[iii!li 




446 STEAMSHIP CITY OF ROME. 

marcliing on the tide, and lighting its path by the fire it 
vomited." 

The Anchor Line of Steamships, one of the largest and 
best equipped that sails the ocean, comprising forty-three 
first-class vessels, ranging from 1,000 to 8,400 tons burthen 
each, has lately added to her fleet of steamships, so well and 
favorably known to the traveling public, a new vessel, the 
City of Borne ^ to ply between New York and Liverpool. 

Perhaps no better evidence of our material progress dur- 
ing the last few decades could be suggested than that 
offered by a comparison of the two steamships we have 
mentioned. As for the Clermont, and other vessels of a 
similar character that have folloAved her advent by succes- 
sive stages of improvement, nothing with which the reader 
is not already familiar could probably be said. 

We submit a brief description of the City of Rome: 

This magnificent steamer was built at Barrow, in Furness, 
by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company, and is the largest 
passenger steamer afloat. Her gross register tonnage is 
8,415 tons; length being 560 feet, breadth of beam 37, and 
depth of hold 52.3 feet. And, notwithstanding her immense 
size, she is on all hands acknowledged to be unsurpassed for 
her beauty and symmetry even by the finest yachts. The 
vessel is rigged with four masts and has three funnels. A 
point calling for special notice is the large number of sepa- 
rate compartments formed by water-tight bulkheads, each 
extending to the main deck. The largest of these com- 
partments is only about 60 feet long; and supposing that, 
from collision or other cause, one of these was filled with 
water, the trim of the vessel would not be materially 
affected. "With a view of giving still further safety in the 
event of collision or stranding, the boilers are arranged in 
two boiler rooms, entirely separated from each other by 
means of a water-tight bulkhead. This reduces what in 
nearly all full powered steamships is a vast single compart- 



ITS DL^fJ1JNSI0^''S. 447 

ment into two of moderate size, 60 feet in length ; and in the 
event of either boiler room being- flooded, it still leaves the 
vessel Avilh lialf her boiler power available. There is also 
the usual water-tight bulkhead separating the engine room 
from the after boiler room. 

Bteani is supplied by twelve cylindrical tubular boilers. It 
is difiicult to convey in "words an adequate idea of the engine 
room, which is a compartment fifty feet square ; but some 
idea as to what her engines are may be had by considera- 
tion of their dimensions: they are 47 feet, 8 inches in height 
from bottom of the frames to top of high-pressure cylinders, 
or as high as an ordinary four-story house ; the engines are of 
8,000 indicated horse power and capable of being worked up 
to 15,000 horse power. 

The passenger accomodations of this floating palace are 
of the most complete description, yffbrding all the comforts 
and luxury of a first-class New York hotel — than which 
there are no finer in the world. The captain and chief offi- 
cers' cabins are on the promenade deck close to the ship's 
bridge, and immediately aft of them is the upper saloon, or 
drawing room, 100 feet in length, handsomely finished in 
white and golf), and furnished with lounges round the sides, 
and a grand piano. At the after end is the grand staircase 
to the dining saloon on main deck, a spacious apartment, 72 
feet in length, 52 feet wide, 9 feet high ; and in the rectangu- 
lar opening to the drawing room above, the height is 17 
feet, and which, being surmounted by a richly ornamented 
skylight, forms an effective and elegant relief to the usually 
heavy appearance of the ceiling. The paneling and deco- 
rations are artistic and unique, a paneled dado three feet 
high is carried entirely round the saloon, and the intervening 
space to the ceiling is filled up with rich panels of carved 
mahogany bordered with a margin of satinwood. The tables, 
of which there are three long ones in the centre, and a row 
of small ones along each side of the saloon, as also the 



448 



ITS ELEGANT APPOINTMENTS. 



revolving cliairs, are of carved teakwoocl. At night the 
saloon is liglited by 32 electric lamps pendant from the ceil- 
ing, giving the whole a most brilliant appearance. 

On each side of the vessel, extending aft from the 
saloon, are state-rooms for nearly four hundred first-class 
passengers, fitted in an elegant and substantial manner with 
everything necessary for their comfort. 

The ladies' boudoir on main deck has paneled walls of 
figured brocaded silk, with tapestry curtains and furniture 
upholstered in blue velvet; there is also a magnificent 
ladies' cabin on the promenade deck, finished in black and 
gold, with furniture covered in amber-colored plush velvet 
and curtains of Roman cloth. There is also a comfortable 
reading room. Gentlenien can have their choice of two 
smoking-rooms ; one on the upper deck is lined with cedar- 
wood with paneling of Japanese water-color sketches ; the 
other, on main deck, is lined with a combination of ma- 
hogany, oak, and walnut, the floors of both being laid with 
parquetry. 

The steamer throughout is lighted by electricity and 
fitted with electric call bells ; then there are hot, cold, and 
salt water baths, lavatories, barber shops, etc., etc., con- 
veniently situated. On the hurricane deck are twelve large 
life-boats, one of which is fitted as a steam launch. 





CHAPTER XXVI. 

THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 

ITHE Signal Service of the Array of the United 
States is organized and equipped for the 
purpose of maintaining communication at 
all hours of the day and night primarily in 
war, but equally so in peace ; such com- 
munication is effected by means of signals 
of any description. The modes of signalling most frequently 
employed by this service are by means of flags, torches, 
heliostats, telegraph, and telephones, by codes or ciphers. 

The field-telegraph trains of the Signal Service are organ- 
ized for use with armies. They are managed by soldiers 
who are drilled to march, manoeuvre, work, and protect 
them. The train carries light or field-telegraph lines, 
which can be very quickly erected or run out at the rate 
of two or three miles per hour. They can be put in use 
for any distance, and be as rapidly taken down, repacked, 
and marched off with the detachment to be used elsewhere. 
The Signal Service also transmits intelligence in refer- 
ence to storms or approaching weather changes by the 
display of signals of warnings, and by reports posted in 
the different cities and ports of the United States. Maps 
showing the state of the weather over the United States 
are exhibited at board of trade rooms, chambers of com- 
merce, and other places of public resort. » Bulletins of data 
for all the stations are also prominently displayed and dis- 
tributed without expense to the leading newspapers. 



450 BRANCHES OF INSTRUCTION. 

Signal-stations are also established in connection with 
the life-saving stations. These stations are connected by 
telegraph, and the former in addition to displaying storm- 
warning signals and making the usual meteorological reports, 
make special reports upon the temperature of the water, 
tempests at sea, the swells, etc. They also summon assist- 
ance to vessels in distress from the nearest life-saving sta- 
tions or from the nearest port. 

Stations for river-reports, to give notice of the conditions 
of the rivers affecting navigation and floods, are also estab 
lished on the principal interior rivers and their tributaries 

The officers and men of the Signal Service are instructed 
for the different branches of the service at Fort Myer, Vir- 
ginia, and at the Central Signal office, in Washington, D. C. 
They are taught signalling in all its branches, telegraphy, 
the use of the various meteorological instruments, the modes 
of observing, and the forms and duties required at stations 
of observation ; the force is also drilled with arms, with the 
field-telegraph train, the construction of permanent tele- 
graph lines, and in the usual duties of soldiers. For the 
duties of the observation of storms and for the display of 
Avarning signals, all stations communicate directly with the 
signal office in Washington over telegraphic circuits ar- 
ranged with the different telegraph companies, and connect- 
ing with the office at fixed hours, each day and night. Each 
station is equipped with the necessary instruments. 

The reading of these instruments is made five times a 
day at fixed hours, and the three taken at 7 A. m., 3 p. m., 
and 11 P. M., Washington time, are regularly telegraphed to 
the Central office in cipher. 

The network of the Signal Service stations now extends over 
the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts, and 
the intervening territory from the Gulf (including the West 
Indies), to the Canadian frontier, and is in receipt, by com- 
ity of exchange, of daily telegraphic intelligence of the 



IN A UG UBA TION OF TEE ' ' WE A TMEB B UREA U. " 451 

weather from the Canadian Dominion and its outlying posts. 
Tiie office work is still hampered for want of more stations 
in the interior and Northwest; but it is thought provision 
will ere long be made for supplying them, as a new trans- 
continental telegraph-line is carried from Manitoba to Brit- 
ish Columbia. Tliese reports from one hundred and thirty- 
eight stations of observation are not unfrequently concen- 
trated at the Central Office in the space oi forty -Jive minutes. 
The stations at which cautionary signals are displayed are 
equipped with flags and apparatus for exhibiting the cau- 
tionary day or night signals, and also for communicating 
with vessels of any nationalit3\ 

The meteorological division of the United States Signal 
service was established in 1870, and was an additional duty 
imposed upon it. Tlie progress of modern inquiry into the 
changes taking place in the weather, and especially into the 
phenomena of storms, had for many years previous, strength- 
ened the conviction that they are not capricious, but follow 
certain laws. To provide, therefore, for meteorological ob- 
servations, with a view to " giving notice by telegraph and 
signals of the approach and force of storms," was the end 
originally contemplated by the joint resolution of Congress, 
which passed February 9th of that year, authorizing the 
Secretary of War to carry this scheme into effect. 

This was the first legislation of the United States Gov- 
ernment inaugurating a national weather service. The 
great and peculiar extension of country afforded exceptional 
advantages for investigating and predicting storms which 
cross its broad area; for experience and observation had 
shown that they generally were more from west to east, and 
not frequently along the meridians. But the vast extent of 
the storm field, coupled with the fact that the "law of 
storms " was then but roughly outlined, made the execution 
of this task a very difficult and tedious work, calling for 
great caution and the most accurate observations. 



452 GO-OP EBATION OF VARIOUS SOCIETIES. 

At first the number of stations and the area covered by 
the predictions was limited.' But when once the fact had 
been established that at any hour of the day or night, the 
Central Office could almost instantly call for reports from all 
parts of the country, and receive them from all its stations, 
taken at the same moment of time and revealing the actual 
status of the atmosphere over its whole field of inquiry, the 
sense of security in its scientific processes, and the confi- 
dence that the results were built upon '" the solid ground of 
nature," gave it a powerful forward impulse. 

A comparison of the simultaneous tri-daily forecasts from 
November 1st, 1871, to October 1st, 1872, gave an average 
of verification of 76.8 percent; and during this time 354 
cautionary signals were issued, with a percentage of correct- 
ness amounting to 70. 

The results also offered the most complete demonstration 
of the laws of storms and the movements of cyclones that 
had ever been obtained in any country. 

By act of Congress approved June 10, 1872, the Signal 
Service was charged with the duty of providing such 
stations, signals, and reports as might be found necessary 
for extending its research in the interests of agriculture. 
The agricultural societies over the land earnestly entered 
into and co-operated with the Service in this new develop- 
ment of its inquiries and reports. Eighty-nine such soci- 
eties, thirty-eight boards of trades or chambers of com- 
merce, numerous scientific institutions, colleges, and leading 
professional men put themselves in communication with the 
Chief Signal Officer, with a view to facilitate this branch of 
his work. The scientific societies at home and abroad began 
to take the liveliest interest in the general labors of the office, 
and to express the highest approval of the results attained. 
And, beyond the limits of the United States, numerous 
marine observations, which G-eneral Myer had previously 
desired, with the purpose of studying the atmosphere as a 



IMPRO VEMENT OF INSTlt UMENTS. 453 

unit both on the ocean and the land, were forwarded regu- 
larly to his office. 

The expansion of the work in 1873, under the stimulus 
of a world-wide favorable notice, was even more rapid than 
in the previous year. On March 3d, Congress authorized 
the establishment of Signal Service stations at the light- 
houses and life-saving stations on the lakes and sea-coast, 
and made provision for connecting the same with telegraph- 
lines or cables " to be constructed, maintained, and worked 
under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, 
or the Secretary of War, and the Secretary of the 
Treasury." Early in this year the office also began the 
regular publication of a Monthly Weather Revieio, sum- 
marizing in a popular way all its data and showing the 
results of its investigations, as well as presenting these in 
graphic weather-charts adapted to the comprehension of 
communities it was destined to reach. The library of the 
Signal Office was increased to some 2,500 volumes bearing 
on the special scientific duties imposed upon it. The tests 
of meteorological instruments previously instituted enabled 
it to greatly improve and simplify its instrumental appa- 
ratus. The percentage of verification of its predictions for 
the year ending June 30th, 1873, Avas for each geographical 
division as follows : 

New England 81.50 

Middle States 81.17 

South Atlantic States 79.92 

Lower Lake region 78.90 

Upper Lake region 75.25 

Eastern Gulf States 77.16 

Western Gulf States 74.40 

Northwest 74.00 

In organizing this service, the first problem that pre- 
sented itself was to devise a S3^stem of observations which 
would, when mapped, accurately represent the aerial pheno- 



454 SUPERIOR TO EUROPEAN SYSTEMS. 

mena at the same instant of time, and in their actual rela- 
tions to each other, and thus enable the investigator to 
discover the laws of storms and their rates of movement 
over the earth's surface. " The history of science," says one 
of its foremost representatives, "proves that unconnected, 
unsystematic, inaccurate observations are worth nothing." 
Certainly, in the domain of meteorology, no solid foundation 
for the science of the weather could have been laid in 1870, 
upon any of the then existing observational systems. The 
European weather-stations at that date, and long after, were 
engaged in making non-simultaneous reports; no two of 
them, unless they happened to be on the same meridian, 
read off their instruments at the same time. 

The perfectly simple scheme of simultaneous observa- 
tions aimed at the rescue of weather-research from the 
chaos in which for ages it had lain. Its cardinal principle 
of observation is to gain frequent views of the atmospheric 
conditions and movements over the country as they actually 
are, and as they would be seen, could they, so to speak, be 
photographed. In no other way can the bearings of the 
various storm-winds and their connected phenomena be 
detected, or the rates of their transition determined. All 
the predictions of the Signal Office, therefore, have from its 
beginning until now, been based on reports taken simulta- 
neously. 

The operations of the meteorological division of the Sig- 
nal Service, popularly known as the " Weather Bureau," 
have been, every year since its creation, somewhat enlarged 
by congress, until they have become numerous and varied. 
The first to be specially mentioned is the daily Avork of 
weather-prediction, including storm warnings. These are 
issued from the Office of the Chief Signal Officer three 
times every day, under the title of " Indications " and 
*' Cautionary Signals," and are based upon three series of 
simultaneous weather reports telegraphed to Washington 



MAN.NER OF ARRIVING AT RESULTS. 455 

from all parts of tlie United States and Canada; also at in- 
termediate hours if necessary, based upon special reports. 
The tri-daily telegraphic observations are taken simultane- 
ously at all stations at 7 a, m., 3 P. M., and 11 P. M., and 
at once put upon the wires. The number of stations from 
which tri-daily telegraphic reports are received at the Cen- 
tral Office is 138. Telegraphic reports have been also 
regularly received from one West-India station, and during 
the hurricane season from five. 

Having taken their instrumental and other observations 
at either of the hours specified, the observers prepare their 
report in ciphers. These cipher-telegrams condensed by 
means of the cipher-code into five or ten words for each re- 
port, as soon as received in the Washington office, are 
translated from cipher, and entered on the bulletin blanks, 
and at the same time in their proper places on the weather- 
maps. This is done under the supervision of the assistant 
charged with the preparation of the weather predictions 
and the announcement of the storm warnings. 

To arrive at the desired result, weather-maps are charted 
from the reports thus received by telegraph, this daily 
weather-map is one on which all the signal service stations 
are entered in their appropriate geographical places, and 
having annexed to each station the figures expressing the 
readings of the barometer and thermometer, the velocity of 
the wind, the amount of rainfall within the previous eight 
hours, etc.; and also symbols indicating the direction of the 
wind, and the form and amount of cloud, at the given time 
observation. The observations taken at each station are all 
put down on the map, and the relations between them are 
thus made sensible to the eye of the signal officer, by the 
figures and symbols, and also by lines drawn to group the 
geographical areas over which like conditions prevail. The 
weather-map is, therefore, to the meteorologist an indispen- 
sible means of obtaining a survey, and prosecuting a careful 



456 THE DAILY WEATHER MAP. 

and connected study of the phenomenon he seeks to under- 
stand. 

By preparing a graphic weather-map embodying the 
telegrahic data furnished to the Chief Signal Officer every 
eight hours of the day, the officer charged with formulating 
the storm predictions gains and retains a clear idea and 
mental image of the atmosphere. A great soldier has said: 
"There is nothing ideal in war;" and it may be said with 
equal force, there is no work which for its intelligent execu- 
tion demands greater precision of method, more copious and 
circumstantial details, and closer attention to the develop- 
ments of the hour, than weather-forecasting over a continent. 
The weather-map brings all these minutia Avithin view, and 
makes the meteorologist master of the whole mass of obser- 
vations, as hours consumed in the study of the numerical 
data could not do. Every weather-map is, therefore, a gene- 
ralization in itself, as well as a record of the data. A series 
of weather-maps is a history of the ebb and flow, the fluctu- 
ations and tossings of the aerial ocean, and of the more 
subtile yet influential processes concerned in producing 
the weather and determining the climate of the country. 

From reading in the morning newspapers the " Synopsis 
and Indications" for the day, no one not initiated in the 
method of preparing them would suspect the magnitude of 
the work involved in their preparation. The study p re-requi- 
site for each of the tri-daily press-reports issued includes 
the draughting of seven graphic charts exhibiting the data 
furnished by the simultaneous reports telegraphed from all 
the stations. 

We will not attempt to give hero any formal descrip- 
tion of these charts as such description would necessarily 
abound in technical terms which would not be likely to 
interest the general reader. 

Armed with this charted material, the officer preparing 
the predictions proceeds first to compile the " Synopsis" and 



A VERA GE PERCENT A GE OF A CC URA V7. 457 

then to deduce tlie "Indications," and issue the necessary 
storm-warnings. The "Synopsis," "Indications," and cau- 
tionary signals constitute the "Press-Report" which when 
finished is telegraphed direct from the ofllice of the Cliief 
Signal Officer to all parts of the country. The average time 
elapsing between the simultaneous reading of the instru- 
ments at the separate stations scattered over tlie United 
States, and the issue of the " Synopsis" and " Indications" 
based on these readings, has been calculated at one hour and 
forty minutes. 

An analysis of the predictions, made for the year ending 
June 30th, 1879, and a comparison with the weather-condi- 
tions Avhich actually occurred within the twenty-four hours 
next ensuing, give the following percentages of verifica- 
tions: 

Percentage of verifications for the year (forecasts of 
barometric pressures, temperatures, wind-direction and 
state of weather) : 86.6. 

Percentage of verifications for the year (forecasts of the 
state of the weather only) : 90.7. 

These percentages of accuracy refer to predictions of 
barometric, thermometric, wind-direction, and general 
weather-changes. The average percentage of accuracy of 
the forecasts of the weather alone (including the state of 
the skies, whether clear, fair, or cloudy, and whether with 
or without rain) for all of the difl:erent districts is 90.7. 
The percentage for the Pacific Coast region is 89.3. In 
other words out of a hundred preannouncements of the 
single element of the " weather " for all parts of the country, 
ninety have been fulfilled by the event. 

The important work of observing and reporting the 
fluctuations and floods of the great Western rivers was at 
an early period of its history undertaken by the Signal 
Service. The interstate commerce being necessarily much 
affected by the oscillations of the rivers, timely warnings of 



458 IMPORTANCE OF BAIL T 0B8ER VA TI0N8. 

their rise and fall, and daily reports of the exact depth of 
water at numerous points, Avere eagerly asked for. These 
observations were found of so much importance that they 
have been extended over the Western, Southern, and Cali- 
fornia rivers, and deductions made from them, indicating 
impending changes, are daily published in the Washington 
weather-reports. All measurements at each river-station 
are made from the " benchmark/' as known to the river-men 
of the vicinity, and the reading of the gauge is daily tele- 
graphed to the Central Office, and all other interested 
stations. Knowing from such telegrams the height of the 
river at each station, as well as the total amount of reported 
rainfall higher up the river-valley, the office is thus enabled 
to calculate and announce the time and degree of coming 
changes. Thus timely premonitions of the great flood- 
waves that pass down the Mississippi, and also its fluctua- 
tions, are issued from this office. 

The gauge used is very simple. In most cases it is a 
plank of pine or oak timber, two inches thick, ten inches 
wide, and long enough, when placed obliquely on the slope 
of the river-bank, to cover the extreme lowwater and high- 
water marks. When firmly imbedded in the earth, the 
" benchmark," which is generally the extreme lowwater 
known, is taken as the zero of the gauge, which is there care- 
fully graduated, its subdivisions exactly corresponding to 
the vertical foot and subdivisions of which they are intended 
to be indices. A " danger-line " is marked on the gauge, 
showing how far the water may rise, but no farther, without 
danger of a flood. The reports telegraphed to the press, 
showing how near each stream has risen to or fallen below 
the " danger-line," enable the public to predetermine dan- 
gerous inundations, and furnish steamboat-men and mer- 
chants the daily information requisite for intelligently 
directing the movements of their craft. During the flood- 
months the telegraphic river-reports are especially valuable 



' ' <S' YiYOPSI^ AND INDICA riON8." 459 

to all river-shipping, and to all interested in the travelinj^ 
and transportation facilities which depend upon it, as well 
as giving timely warnings of ice-floods or sudden rises and 
falls. The levee systems of the Mississippi and other great 
rivers are thus guarded, and the immense agricultural inter- 
ests secured, as the flood-warning comes in time to summon 
the State force to strengthen the imperiled works. 

In connection with this service, surface and bottom 
water-temperatures at points upon the rivers, lakes, and 
sea-coasts are observed and reported for the United States 
Commissioner of Fisli and Fisheries, with a view to ascer- 
tain the proper waters in which to plant the various food- 
fishes and furnish statistics desired for the development of 
the national system of pisciculture. 

There is also to be mentioned the attention given by the 
office to the changes of temperature by Avliich the canals are 
closed by freezing or opened by thaws for transportation. 
During the months when the market-rates and freight- 
schedules are affected by the probabilities of the canals 
closing, and when these w^ater-ways are thronged with hun- 
dreds of laden barges, the dailv predictions indicate thermo- 
metric conditions likely to ensue along tlieir lines of transit. 
Such information protects the public from the imposition of 
excessive railway-rates in the shipments of grain-crops, es- 
pecially in any autumn season of protracted mildness, and 
effects a large saving to the mercantile world. 

The distribution of the tri-daily " Synopsis and Indica- 
tions" over the whole Country may be understood from the 
following official facts. The total number of these forecasts 
— 1,095 issued every year — are telegraphed at the moment 
of issue to the principal cities, and are published in some 
form in almost every newspaper in the country. In many 
public and conspicuous places, they are also bulletined for 
popular inspection. In order that they may reach the 
farming populations, an arrangement is effected with the 



460 THE OA UTIONAB T STORM SIGNALS. 

Post-Office Department, by which special " Farmer's Bulle- 
tins " may be distributed at an early morning hour of each 
day, except Sunday, along the railroads radiating from the 
chief cities of the Union. Tlrese bulletins contain proper 
selections from the matter of the " midnight " report made 
up in the Washington office at 1 a, m. of each day, which 
when it reaches the outlying stations by telegraph, is 
printed before daylight, and copies of it mailed to the rural 
postmasters for many miles around, and by them displayed 
in their offices. The intelligence of weatlier changes, with 
predictions and other data useful to the farmer in secur- 
ing his crops or in other ways, on an average, reaches the 
different railway-stations, hamlets and villages throughout 
the country in the forenoon. As the predictions cover 
twenty-four hours, and often hold good for twice that period, 
they, therefore, reach the rural populations twelve or four- 
teen hours before the period to which they apply expires, 
and not unfrequently a day and a half or more. 

The Cautionary Storm Signals, which accompany the 
" Synopsis and Indications " issued to the press three times 
each day, constitute a very important part of the Signal 
service work; and it Avas the possibilit}^ of preparing 
such storm-warnings for the benefit of navigation that orig- 
inally gave the chief stimulus to the establishment of a 
Weather Bureau. The United States has a double front 
with over 7000 miles of sea-beaten coast, exclusive of the 
shore-line of its great lakes, ravaged by destructive tem- 
pests; and this vast stretch of marginal territory needs 
to be environed with stations from which observations 
can be taken, and premonitory intelligence of cyclone and 
anticyclone signaled by day and by night to storm-men- 
aced shipping. If no other duty devolved upon the Service, 
this alone would more than justify its whole cost, and 
warrant its extension. It is one of the most difficult and 
responsible tasks which can fall to the meteorologist, to put 



TWO XmDS OF STORM SIGNALS. 461 

his science to its utmost stretch of accurate prevision (aud 
often it must be done with a very few minutes for deliberation) 
to decide at what points on the coast the storm-wind will 
strike with dangerous effect. It is practically fatal to the value 
of his warnings if they are found to be superfluous, since in 
that case they cease to command the attention of seamen. 
Nor, for like reason, must they be displayed too late; nor 
yet too early, lest they should interfere with the move- 
ments of vessels which might run out of the dangerous vi- 
cinity before the storm can reach them. Thus the per- 
plexing questions which spring up at every display of the 
signals lend to this part of the service intense interest. No 
such work had ever been undertaken in this country when the 
Signal Service was organized, and maritime storm-signaling 
in other countries had only been as yet rewarded by very 
moderate success. 

On the organization of the United States Weather Service 
in 1870, General Myer began with great caution to prepare 
for this difficult and delicate part of his arduous task; and 
on the 21111 of October, 1871, the display of signals on the 
sea-coasts and lakes commenced. The order regulating this 
display contemplated that the Avarning should be sent only 
to stations at which a wind having a velocity of twenty-five 
miles or more per hour would occur. As the anemometer at 
every station registers the wind's velocity for every hour, it 
is easy to ascertain whether any signal has been justified. 
Every such display is carefully followed up by the office, 
and the result — '"justified " or " not justified " — is recorded, 
as reported by the observers hoisting the signals by tele- 
graphic order from the Chief Signal Officer. 

The cautionary signals are of two kinds: 1. Those pre- 
monishing dangerous winds to blow from any direction ; 2, 
Those premonishing off-shore winds likely to drive vessels 
out to sea. Both kinds are needed by mariners as the 
storm-centers approach or depart from a maritime station. 



STORM SIGNALS DESCRIBED. 463 

The first, distinctively termed the " Cautionary Signal,^^ 
consists of a red flag with a black square in the center, for 
warning in the day-time, and a red light by night. The 
second, or " Cautionary Off-shore Signal," consists of a 
white /lag with a black square in the center, shown above a 
red fiag with square black center by day, or a tvJiife light 
shown above a red light by night, indicating that, while the 
storm has not yet passed the station, and dangerous winds 
may yet be felt there, they Avill probably be from a north- 
erly or westerly direction; this second signal, when dis- 
played in the lake region in anticipation of high north to 
west Avinds, is designated the " Cautionary North-west 
Signal." The display of either signal, however, is always 
intended to be cautionary, and calls for great vigilance on 
the part of vessels within sight of it. 

The total number of sea-ports and points on the lake and 
sea-coasts where the storm-signals are hoisted now is one 
hundred and eleven. The points whence storm-signals are 
displayed, however, are only those of the maritime margins 
of the field of research. 

When this Weather Bureau was first proposed, the high- 
est end thought attainable, by the most sanguine, was to 
give Avarnings of the great storms that traverse the lakes 
and sea-coast of the United States. This, however, is but 
a small part of the public interests it subserves. The num- 
ber of persons who find that the reports and the forecasts of 
the Service may be utilized for every-day life is constantly 
increasing. Signal-observers are not unfrequently subpoe- 
naed to bring the records of the weather into the courts, as 
legal evidence in cases upon which they bear. Grain and 
cotton merchants find the reports of value in calculations 
of the forthcoming crops. Emigrants consult them in the 
selection of favorable climatic conditions for a new abode. 
Physicians, sanitarians and boards of health employ the 
data to detect dangerous conditions of the atmosphere 



464 THE USE MADE OF THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 

of the cities, and for investigating the origin and spread of 
diseases and epidemics, as in the case of recent yellow- 
fever visitations of the South. The pork-packers, fruit- 
importers, and fish and oyster dealers keep an eye on them 
to secure themselves against exposure of perishable goods 
to extremes of temperature or other vicissitudes of weather. 
They are of use to specialists in manufacturing and in hygi- 
enic interests, and are consulted by thousands planning 
journeys or excursions for health or pleasure. River boat- 
men, farmers, sugar-planters, fruit-growers, and ice-dealers 
find occasion to utilize them. Mechanics judge from the 
prognostics whether they can work outside on the morrow. 
The meteorological data supply engineers with information 
indispensable for planning economical and storm-proof archi- 
tecture. Railroad ofiicials, during snow-blockades, are kept 
advised by the reports, so that they are enabled to make 
provision for clearing the tracks ; and railroad-freight ofiicers 
find them useful for facilitating transportation. These are 
some of the daily applications made of the Signal Service 
work in the interior and central, not less than in the sea- 
board sections of the country. In every branch of agricul- 
ture and trade the deductions made from the published 
synopsis and indications of the weather have acknowledged 
value to the public when obtainable. In military operations 
over the vast West, the intelligence of approaching storms 
is highly prized, in timing movements so as to avoid heavy 
roads and dangerous delays. "Had we, a quarter of a cen- 
tury ago," says a British meteorologist, " known the rigor 
of the Crimean climate, who would have dared to send out 
an army unprepared to meet the hardships of a Black Sea 
winter ? Ask the physician at what price he would value 
the power of giving timely warning of a * cold snap ' to his 
patients. Ask the builders of London what they have lost 
in the last ten years by sudden frosts or unexpected down- 
pours of rain. Above all things, go to the farmer and ask 



'i<IMULTAXEOUti" WEATHER REPORTS. 4G5 

•vvliat he would freely pay to know at seed-time what weather 
he might really expect in harvest. The fact is, there is not 
a profession, not a handicraft, not a process in animal or 
vegetable life, which is not influenced by meteorological 
changes." 

We have said that this system of " simultaneous " 
weather reports practically began in 1870. The plan so 
skillfully Avrought out by General Myer and his successor 
has become in a certain sense international. The old world 
has again had to take a lesson from her younger rival. Other 
nations have put in operation the system so successfully 
developed here, and not only so, but the same plan has be- 
come general all over the world, each nation as a factor con- 
tributing daily her quota of information, and the knowledge 
thus conveyed of the " probabilities " of so many specific 
localities is for the benefit of every nation. This country 
may justly feel proud of having been instrumental in bring- 
ing about such a desirable result. 

It can be readily understood that this extension of the 
theatre of observation affords us much greater security by 
giving us a longer time for preparation, enabling us, so to 
speak, to erect timely barriers with which, in some sense, 
we may better resist the mighty forces of nature. 

As perfect and desirable as this system of " international 
simultaneous weather reports " has become, our " wise men " 
are constantly improving it. 

The Sea-coast Telegraph Lines are another important 
portion of the organization. By act of Congress, the Secre- 
tary of War was authorized to establish signal-stations at 
the light-houses and life-saving stations on the lakes and 
sea-coasts, and to connect these signal-stations with tele- 
graph-lines, to be constructed, maintained, and worked 
under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army; 
and the use made of the life-saving stations is subject to 
such regulations as are fixed upon by the Chief Signal 



466 THE SEA-COAST TELEGEAPH. 

Officer, the Secretary of War,- and the Secretary of the 
Treasury. By this co-operative arrangement, the Signal 
Service has become a valuable if not an indispensible 
auxiliary to the sister services with which it connects, and 
shares very materially in the labors and responsibilities, 
especially of the Life-Saving Service. 

The coast signal-stations aim to warn vessels within sig- 
naling distance of the approach of the storms, and to give 
life-saving stations quick notice of marine disasters calling 
for rescue, as also to furnish any intelligence to the latter, 
or to the light-houses, which may insure their more efficient 
"working. Connected by wire or submarine cable, as all the 
signal-stations on the coast are, from Sandy Hook, N. J., to 
Smithville, N. C, and connected similarly with the office of 
the Chief Signal Officer at Washington, whence they are 
kept advised of any change in the meteorological status, 
they are thus enabled, from their full ocean view, to commu- 
nicate directly any warnings from the Chief Signal Officer 
to passing ships, or to convey to him any facts which may be 
of use to the Washington office. The telegraphic wires 
connect each station with the Central Signal Office. The 
weather-reports and observations on the indications of the 
sea thus obtained are often of the greatest value to the 
Washington office in its work of preannouncing the force, 
direction, and velocity of the great hurricanes from the 
West Indies, which traverse our Atlantic seaboard. 

As an illustration of this, it may suffice to note that in the 
summer of 1873, when the great August hurricane which so 
furiously assailed and wrecked seven hundred sail, was still 
passing over the Bermudas, its long dead swell was outrun- 
ning its centre by 600 miles, driving in the bathers at Long 
Branch and pouring into New York Bay. The steamer 
Albemarle encountered its fore-running wave on her voyage 
from Halifax to the Bermudas; and, though the morning 
was fair, suspecting danger, the vessel was hove to for a few 



niPOIirANCE TO LIFE-SAVING STATIONS. 4G7 

hours to examine the swell. Concluding that the hurricane 
was advancing directly upon him, her captain changed his 
couise from southerly to westerly, and by a slight detour 
eluded the gale. 

As one by one, yet all independently, the coast-signal ob- 
servers on any day telegraph to the Central Office the 
same significant tidings of the ocean — indications of an At- 
lantic gale, the intensity and direction of the swell — their 
concurrent observations often present unmistakable proofs of 
the presence, course, and progressive rate of these mena- 
cing meteors. The intelligence thus afforded is indispensa- 
ble to the storm-warning and weather-prediction work of 
the Washington authorities. But, apart from the meteor- 
ological value of such a Coast Signal Service, its incidental 
contributions to the life-saving stations have already 
proved of the greatest assistance. 

On the 20th of March, 1877, after a severe storm on the 
middle Atlantic coast. Sergeant William Stein of the Signal 
Service, in charge of the Cape Henry Station, discovered 
before dawn a large vessel stranded on a shoal off that sta- 
tion, and summoned the wreckers at Norfolk to come to the 
rescue. With the earliest light the sergeant displayed the 
" attention-flags" of the international code, with which every 
sea-coast signal station is supplied ; and, receiving answer 
that she was the Winchester of Liverpool, with request for 
two steam-tugs to be sent to the vessel, he telegraphed at 
once to Norfolk for wrecking-steamers. Before sundown 
active efforts were made to save the stranded vessel. She 
was gotten off the sboal after some days' labor ; but mean- 
time three other vessels, in a second storm (of the 25th), 
were stranded within a mile of her. Sergeant Stein again 
telegraphed the wreckers at Norfolk for aid. He ascertained 
the name of the bark in greatest peril to be the Pantzer, a 
Norwegian vessel, and the crew of the Life-Saving Service 
a little later succeeded in firincr a life-line over her deck. 



468 mCIDENT OF THE "METROPOLIS." 

The Norwegians did not comprehend its use, but after some 
effort, the Signal Service officer, by means of international 
signals, instructed her crew to "haul in on the line," and "by 
nine o'clock all the crew of the Pantzer were safely landed. 
In the wrecks of the steamships L'Amerique, Rusland, and 
Huron (of the United States Navy), the first tidings were 
conveyed by the Signal Service wires, and through them 
succor was speedily summoned. In the case of the Huron, 
drifted ashore near Kitty Hawk, a private of the Signal 
Service, A. T. Sherwood, stationed at that place, received 
the first intelligence November 23d, and, after telegraphing 
to Washington, hastened to the awful scene, walking sixteen 
miles through the sand, and brought full reports of the sit- 
uation to his station, which were instantly telegraphed to the 
Chief Signal Officer. The War and Navy Departments and 
the Life-Saving Service were thus notified, and by them 
steamers of the navy and wrecking companies were started to 
the fatal point of the shore on which the Huron had gone to 
pieces. The Kitty Hawk observer, immediately on receiving 
orders from the Chief Signal Officer, opened a " wreck 
station" abreast of the foundered vessel before daylight of 
the 25th, connecting it by a temporary telegraph wire with 
his station ; and, working this improvised station on the 
open beach while the gale was 5^et raging, drcAv toward 
the spot the whole organized relief force of the government. 
A similar service was performed on the stormy night of 
..January 31st, 1878, by another private soldier, of the Sig- 
nal Corps, William Davis, when the steamship Bfetropolis, 
with 248 souls on board, became a total wreck, twenty miles 
•from Kitty Hawk station. At 6.55 P. M. on that night, 
intelligence of the disaster reached Kitty Hawk, and in less 
than fifteen minutes, Private Davis, carrying telegraphic 
and signal apparatus, was riding through the night and 
storm to the scene. By 4 a. m. he had reached the vessel, 
established his telegraph-station abreast of her, opened 



THE COAST tilGXAL SERVICE. 4G9 

communication, and forwarded a report to the Ciiief Signal' 
Officer at Washington, and was putting in motion all the 
machinery of relief and succor which the country could com- 
mand. The observers of the coast signal stations, whenever 
it is practicable, board vessels that have gone ashore, and 
open communication with the land. An instance of this 
may be cited from the action of private Harrison of the 
Signal Corps, at Cape Henry, when the bark Guiseppe 
Masson was wrecked near that station, February 10th, 1878. 
His presence prevented the crew from deserting their ship, 
which, by the aid of powerful wrecking steamers, was sub- 
sequently saved. Other instances of boarding vessels could 
be cited, as those of the Italian bark Francesco Bellagamhe 
and the British steamship Antonio, both boarded by Signal 
Service men who afterwards kept up signal conversations 
with the shore until the ships were saved. But these cases 
will suffice to show the intimate alliance existing between 
the Coast Signal Service and the results announced b}^ the 
Life-Saving Service. Without the Signal Service co-opera- 
tion, the latter would often, in emergencies that arise, be 
powerless to command the needed help, as well as to com- 
municate with stranded vessels. For the Signal Service, 
only men drilled in signaling can avail. 

So arranged is the Coast Signal Service, that not only 
are its storm-flags and danger-warnings visible by vessels 
moving off the coast, but even a vessel en voyage (say one 
which is bound from the equator to New York), as she passes 
Cape Henlopen, may inquire by signals whether any hurri- 
cane is impending: if so, Avhether she has time to reach 
Sandy Hook before its arrival, or must take shelter behind 
the Delaware breakwater. Or, a vessel bound from New 
York or any northern port southward, on reaching the Capes 
of the Delaware, can make inquiry as to whether any storm 
is likely to strike her before she can pass Cape Hatteras, 
and receive full advice by telegraph from the Chief Signal 



470 INTERNATIONAL CODE OF FLAG-SIGNALS. 

Office at Washington, in a very brief time. With adequate 
appropriations, this Coast Signal Service could easily be made 
of far greater value to all the shipping and mercantile in- 
terests. 

On February 4, 1878, an order was issued by which are 
announced the stations of the service prepared to hold com- 
munication by the international code of flag-signals with 
vessels of any nation at sea coming within the proper signal 
distance. It is so arranged that any question as to weather 
changes anticipated so signaled from the vessel to the shore- 
station is immediately transmitted by telegraph to the cen- 
tral office, whence prompt reply is ordered. 

This reply, on reaching the coast stations, is signaled by 
flags, if need be, to the inquiring vessel. It is possible thus 
to gain any needed information without landing a boat. It 
does not appear how a system of storm-warning or coast- 
signaling can be given a greater scope than is arrived at 
loj this process. The instance may be imagined, for illus- 
tration, of a vessel sailing from New York for a southern 
port and making inquiries off the Capes of the Delaware 
whether it will be safe to pass Cape Hatteras, and advised 
from this office in reply to the inquiry transmitted to this 
office that a storm at the time is moving near Hatteras, and 
to take shelter at the Delaware Breakwater until the dis- 
turbance shall have passed northward. In the occurrences 
of each year there have been instances in which steamers 
moving along the coast have conducted their voyages from 
port to port upon the answers to special inquiries addressed 
from the ports in which they might be to the office. There 
have been instances in which such special inquiries have 
been signaled from the vessel to the station, telegraphed 
thence to the office, and the telegraphic answer signaled 
again to the vessel. With proper appliances such plans of 
communication might be established along the extent of the 
coasts of the United States. 



INCIDENTS IL L US TRA TTNG THE SER VICE. 471 

In the annual report of the Cliiof Sig-nal Officer lor 1877 
several disasters were described us having occurred u[)on the 
Atlantic coast, and the action of" those of the Signal Corps 
occupying the stations upon the coast, was related at sonio 
length to illustrate by the different incidents the character 
of the especial service it was expected to render. Since the 
date of that report several severe storms have swept the 
same coasts. It is since that report that the systems of 
display-stations established by the general office has ren- 
dered it possible to exhibit warning signals at almost every 
navigable inlet. There have been no disasters o. magnitude 
to record. The hope may be indulged that this decrease in 
the number of disasters has been in part due to the more 
extensive display of warning signals referred to, and in part 
to the greater attention paid by shippers and seafaring men 
to the warnings. 

The following instances having occurred during the year, 
are given as illustrations of the varied uses to which the sea- 
coast service can be applied: 

The Haytien brig Tropic, Captain Potter, from Marigone, 
Hayti, for New York, with logwood, 15 days out, came ashore 
near Barnegat, N. J., at 3:30 a. m., March 16, at a point 14 
miles south of station, during a dense fog. Private Burrows, 
the repairman from the Central station, was on his way 
south, and, upon his arrival at the scene of wreck he imme- 
diately cut the wire and made telegraphic report to the 
Chief Signal Officer, via Sandy Hook. The line being down 
south, he then proceeded and repaired it, then returned to 
the wreck and reopened wreck station at 5 p. M., March 18, 
reporting direct to the Chief Signal Officer. 

January 26, Captain Fitzgerald wrote to this office and 
stated that he intended taking the H. B. Plant, a small river 
steamer, from Wilmington, Del., to Jacksonville, Fla., by sea, 
and that before leaving Delaware Bay he would telegraph 
for the " Indications " for the next twenty-four hours ; on 



472 rOYAOB OF THE "H. B. PLANT." 

the same date he was informed, by letter from this office, 
that any telegram received from him relative to the weather, 
would be promptly answered ; at the same time he was fur- 
nished with a list of the stations of the Signal Service on 
the Atlantic coast from Delaware Breakwater, Del., to Jack- 
sonville, Fla., and with the circular on the coast signal ser- 
vice, giving danger or distress signals. On February 9, 
Captain Fitzgerald telegraphed this office that steamer 
Plant would be at Lewis, Del., at midnight, and requested a 
special report as to wind and sea from Cape Henlopen to 
Savannah. The required information was telegraphed him 
at the Signal Service station at Delaware Breakwater. On 
the same date (February 9), Captain Fitzgerald wrote to 
this office from Wilmington, Del,, stating that he intended 
to leave port at 3 p. M., and would stop at Delaware Break- 
water for midnight Indications, and that in going down the 
coast, if he passed near enough the shore for the observers 
in charge of the stations of the Signal Service to see him, 
he would request that if bad weather bo expected the 
"Union Jack" Avould be hoisted; if good weather the Amer- 
ican flag be hoisted. Instructions were immediately tele- 
graphed, from this office, to the observers in charge of the 
stations at Cape Henry, Va., Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, 
und Smithville, N. C, to look out for tlie steamer Plant, 
^ive all possible information, and ask for information from 
this office; also to signal him as desired. On the mornings 
of February 10 and 11, the Indications were telegraphed to 
Captain Fitzgerald at Delaware Breakwater. The Plant ar- 
rived off Cape Heniy, Va., on the 11th. The Captain sent a 
boat ashore and telegraph to this office for a special report of 
weather. He was telegraphed in reply as follows : " Severe 
storm approaching from the west ; it will not be safe to 
leave Norfolk to-night or to-morrow." Upon the receipt of 
this telegram the captain ran his vessel into the Hampton 
Roads and came to anchor. Captain Fitzgerald states in 



UK II SA Fl<: AUlll 1 A /.. 47:i 

regard to this waruiug- that it certainly saved his life and 
his vessel, as she could not have lived outside that night. 
He was telegraphed again from this ollice on the morning of 
the 12th, " Telegram of last night holds good to-day; no 
change in indications; if any favorable change to-day will 
notify you at six o'clock." And again at 6 p. m., " Remain 
at Norfolk until notified of safety; second storm coming 
from southwest," At 12:4:2 A. M., February 15, the ob- 
server at Cape Henry was ordered to signal Captain Fitz- 
gerald the following message and to prevent his leaving 
that station: " Will not be safe for you to leave Norfolk to- 
night." The Plant arrived at Beaufort Harbor on the 
17th and telegraphed to this office for Indications, and re- 
ceived the following answer: '" Light southerly winds and a 
quiet sea expected." She then proceeded on her way and 
reached Jacksonville in safety. 

As the Chief Signal Officer has said : "The time is not 
far distant when the possession of a coast not covered by 
sea-coast storm-signal and signal service stations, watching 
as sentinels each his own beat of sea and shore, and ready 
to summon aid by electric wires, will be held as much an 
evidence of semi-barbarism, as is now among civilized 
nations the holding of any national coast without a system 
of lightliouse lights." In the event of war, with a completed 
chain of coast signal stations, no part of our exposed sea- 
front could be threatened witiiout immediate intelligence of 
the fact being flashed to the Washington office and all along 
the coast, and the defensive power of the Government con- 
centrated at the point endangered. 

In this brief description of an important subject much 
has necessarily been omitted that might make the chapter 
more readable ; but the Signal Service renders such prac- 
tical aid to every class and condition of man in respect to 
his varied employment, that a fair statement of its scope 
and operation will likely be deemed sufficient. 



474 FLOATING STATIONS. 

The very wise critic may tell us that this subject is 
hardly within the domain of the " Water World." It might 
seem at the first thought that this is so, but Ave venture to 
believe that a little consideration will show that there is no 
impropriety in treating it in this place and in this manner. 
Our storms come from the sea. We have some protection 
from phenomenal forces in nature and sudden changes of 
climate, if we have timely notice of the same. 

Fortunately for our best interests, we generally receive 
such notice, and are learning day by day to pay more heed 
to it when received. 

The "Service" is not yet perfect, but improvements are 
constantly being made. The Signal Stations are mainly on 
the coasts, and in the most likely track of the storms, and 
yet so situated, they are a long distance from the sources of 
the most destructive storms and agencies. They can tell 
us pretty certainly when a storm is coming, its force, and 
what direction it is likely to take. But this may not always 
be done in time, as the storm may have begun far out at 
sea, and notice of its exact force and direction may not be 
received soon enough to properly guard against its destruc- 
tive tendencies. 

It has been recommended that " Floating Stations " be 
established in mid sea and connected with the shore stations 
by cable. The advantages sure to result from the inaugura- 
tion of such a plan are obvious, and we presume it will soon 
be adopted. 

The " Wiggins Prophecies," concerning which there was 
so much ado recently, revealed two things: first, the great 
interest felt by all classes in this subject, and that, too, out- 
side of and beyond any mere selfish or personal considera- 
tion ; and secondly, the fact that we may safely and with 
entire confidence trust i\iQ "Weather Bureau "of the Sig- 
nal Service. 




CHAPTER XXYII. 

THE LIFE-8A VING SEE VICE. 

|AS the reader spent his life within sound of 
the sea? Has he ever or frequently visited 
its coasts? Tliere are but few more stirring 
and picturesque sights than some large body 
of water dotted here and there as far as the 
eye can reach, with almost unnumbered sails. Here are 
vessels, variously rigged and of all sizes. Whence have 
they come, and whither are they bound? Let us think a 
moment of only those the vision may take in at a single 
glance: what a history Avould a record of each of their sin- 
gle voyages be! The log-books of many of them could only 
be opened and read on the other side of the " Jasper Sea!" 
What would a man give in exchange for his life? And 
again : " Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay 
down his life for his friends." These last two sentences be- 
come appropriate texts for the theme under consideration. 
First, the organization of the service is an expression and 
evidence of what a nation will give to save its life; the 
second sentence finds its heroic embodiment in the labor 
performed by the noble-hearted officers and men of the Life- 
Saving Service. 

We purpose in the following pages to give some portion 
of the history and progress of this branch of the public ser- 
vice, together with some of the stirring incidents illustrating 
its practical and far-reaching labor. 

The lake and sea-coast of the United States exceeds ten 



476 NUMBER OF LIFE-SAVINQ STATIONS. 

thousand miles, reaching through all varieties of climate, 
and containing untold features of coast danger to those sail- 
ing in its neighborhood. Probably the most dangerous of 
this immense stretch of coast is the long portion of barren 
sandy beaches lying between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras. 

To be more specific still, that portion almost within sight 
of the great Metropolis, the coast of New Jersey, is consid- 
ered by far the worst. It was in this notoriously dangerous 
place, the G-overnment, in 1848, placed a few rude huts that 
became the begining of what has since become the United 
States Life-saving Service. These little dwellings were ex- 
pected to afford a shelter to the distressed sailors cast upon 
friendly shore, and to contain the clumsy boats and such 
other appliances as were then in use. These were used on 
occasions of shipwreck by volunteers from among the brave 
beachmen. Small and inadequate appropriations were occa- 
sionally made by Congress. The huts were extended to 
other coasts, but after all it amounted to but little, for lack 
of a head and coherent organization. This difficulty was 
finally overcome by the appointment of Mr. Sumner L. Kim- 
ball as General Superintendent in 1871, under whose able 
management the present excellent system was developed 
and perfected. 

The Service now numbers about two hundred life-saving 
stations. Pleasant and commodious buildings have taken the 
place of the rude huts ; here are kept ready for instant 
use, the surf boat and self-righting boat, the mortar-cart, 
loaded with wreck ordinance, lines, and appliances. Kitchen 
and sleeping apartments are set off. There is also a store- 
room and medicine chest; and here lives the keeper and his 
crew of six surfmen. 

This band of men are chosen from among the sturdy 
fishermen brought up on the coast. The sea in all its 
moods is a familiar and not a terrible object to them. For- 
tunate it is, that it is into their brave and skillful hands that 



GUARDS ON DUTY. 477 

human life is entrusted in the many direful emergencies of 
those who go down into the sea in ships. From earliest 
youth up these surfraen become familiar with the breakers 
on their coasts, every eddy, bar, and current; also, though 
not sailors, they yet become familiar Avith every part and 
line of a ship, gained in the operation of stripping wrecks. 
Notwithstanding this practical apprenticeship, there must 
yet remain much for the surfman to learn before he can be 
considered as a life-saving man ; his education or training is 
completed by officers of the Revenue Marine, who are 
especially qualified for this important duty. 

It will be understood that these men are living apart 
from their families, friends, and associations, and therefore 
their life is sometimes monotonous, though a very busy one. 
Their hours of drill and practice is as regular as is that of 
the soldier on duty. The}' have their beats between stations 
which must be regularly and constantly patrolled. This 
duty is particularly severe and tedious at night-time. It is 
divided into three watches. Two guards set out at the 
commencement of each watch, one going to the right and 
the other to the left, ultimately meeting patrolmen from ad- 
jacent stations, with whom they exchange tokens of some 
character to prove to the officer in the morning that they 
have performed their duty faithfully. Nothing is left undone 
to insure the certain and perfect watching of the beach. 
The length of each beat is from four to five miles. It can 
be easily imagined that this guard or patrol duty is no light 
matter, especially upon a stormy night. And yet, no matter 
what the storm may be, it must be faced. There is no such 
thing as turning back. This is the very time when his duty 
is most imperative. Hundreds of lives may be depending 
upon his watchful care, and too devoted is he to duty to 
neglect anything of its faithful performance now. 

The patrolman, discovering a vessel being driven ashore 
in a storm, takes the initial step in the operation of rescue. 



478 WRECK OF THE "J. R. HAMTZELL." 

In addition to bis lantern, he carries at night a signal which 
when ignited gives out a brilliant red light. His senses are 
keenly awake, and the slightest unusual thing instantly 
attracts his attention. Perhaps it is a faint light in the 
distance, the shadowy outline of a sail or spar, or something 
cast at his feet that he determines must have come from 
some ship. Now he is all expectation, ready either for warn- 
ing or rescue. But we can best convey to the reader a true 
picture by presenting a few incidents of actual occurrence, 
as follows: 

The schooner J. H. Hartzell was wrecked about a mile 
south of the harbor of Frankfort, Lake Michigan, on the 
16th of October, 1880. The scene on this occasion was in 
every respect extraordinary, and few narratives could sur- 
pass in interest the soberest recital of what took place that 
day abreast of, and upon the wooded steeps in the neighbor- 
hood of one of our Western towns. 

The schooner was commanded by Captain William A. 
Jones. Her crew consisted of six men. There was also a 
woman on board, who acted as cook. The vessel, having 
made a good run, arrived off Frankfort about 3 o'clock on 
Saturday morning, October 16. Captain Jones concluded 
to wait until daylight before entering the harbor. But 
before daylight came a terrible storm arose. Being rather 
close to the shore, an attempt was made to wear ship, 
but in the fury of the gale the vessel would not obey her 
helm, and began to drift in; seeing which, her master 
let go both anchors and set his signal of distress. In 
spite of all efforts she finally went ashore on a precipitous 
bluff known as Little Bald Hills. The seas soon began 
to rush over her, and the awful staving and crashing usual 
in such cases began. The boats were soon carried away, 
the ship began to founder, and the crew had to take to the 
rigging. The cook was very weak from serious illness, 
and it took the united labor of four men to get her aloft 



THE LIFE BOAT COMING. 479 

into the cross-trees of the foremast, across \vhic4i phiiiks 
ha<l been nailed. A little while after the men liad ^ot 
aloft, the vessel sank in sixteen feet of water, the stern 
resting upon the bar and the forward part in deeper water. 
Later the mainmast gave way and went over, remaining 
attached to the foundered hulk by some of the cordage, and 
thrashing and plunging alongside with every rush of the 
seas. The foremast, with the men upon it — one of them, 
the captain, clinging to the ratlines, about ten feet above 
the water; the remainder fifty feet aloft in the cross-trees, 
with the recumbent woman — swayed and creaked ominously, 
some of the wedges having become loosened, and seemed 
likely to go over at any moment. It was a horrible feature 
of this shipwreck that the vessel, now an utter ruin, had a 
short time before been loitering to and fro in the fresh 
breeze, with no anticipation of disaster, w^aiting only for 
daylight to drop into her harbor, near at hand. So suddenly 
and fiercely had the tempest risen that within an hour de- 
stroyed her, and placed in deadly jeopardy the lives of the 
wretched company that clung to her one tottering spar. 

The vessel was seen from the town shortly after she 
struck. One of the earliest to observe her was a little boy, 
the son of a fisherman, who, looking through the sheeting- 
rain and hail saw her plunging in the breakers. The lad 
at once told his father, who ran without delay to the village 
of South Frankfort with the alarm, and, accompanied by 
some fifteen or twenty citizens, cut across the hills and got 
abreast of the wreck near 8 o'clock. Other persons continued 
to arrive, and at length the crowd built a fire and laid pieces 
of driftw^ood along so as to form in huge rude letters, black 
against the white ground of the blufi", the words "life-boat 
COMING." Eager signals from the sailors announced that 
they could read this gigantic telegram. Meanw^hile, a gal- 
lant young citizen named Woodward had started on horse- 
back for the nearest life-saving station, (No. 4, Eleventh 



A TERRIBLE JOURNEY. 481 

District,) ten miles distant, by a sandy and hilly road, 
mostly lying through woods. Tiie young man galloped 
furiously through the tempest, which was constantly increas- 
ing in violence, tearing along the difficult highway to such 
good purpose that by half-past 8 o'clock he dashed up to 
the station with the news of the wreck. The keeper, Cap- 
tain Thomas E. Matthews, at once ordered out the mortar-cart 
and beach apparatus. In a few minutes, the cart, loaded 
■with the Lyle gun, the breeches buoy, hawser and hauling 
lines, and other appurtenances, left the station, dragged by 
the horse, which young Woodward hitched on, the hauling 
being also aided by himself and the station-men. One of 
the surfmen, was away on the south patrol when the start 
was made, and followed his comrades to the scene of the 
wreck subsequently. 

The expedition had set out upon a terrible journey. 
The station is upon the lake shore, north of Frankfort, south 
of which town the wreck lay, and the intervening river 
and the harbor-piers making out into the lake from the town 
made it impossible, in any case to arrive at the wreck by fol- 
lowing the line of the coast. The shortest route, not less 
than seven or eight miles long, was by a road which led off 
the beach to an intersecting road leading to the town, but 
to gain this it was necessary to travel two miles along the 
beach, which was now submerged by a swashing flood con- 
stantly bursting against and washing away the steep banks of 
the lake shore, battering the escarpment with intertangled 
masses of logs, stumps, and trees, and, of course, rendering 
the way impassable. The expedition was therefore com- 
pelled to lengthen the detour by taking an old trail or 
cart track. This road wandered through the woods, along 
Avinding ravines and up steep, soggy hills. Across these 
acclivities the way was so difficult that the men and the 
horse, tugging and straining at the cart together, could only 
make ten or fifteen yards at a ]nill without pausing. This 



482 BEL lEF A T HAND. 

violent toil was pursued amidst the roaring of the gale, 
which now blew almost a hurricane, until about a mile's dis- 
tance from the station had been accomplished. By this time 
the men, despite the bitter cold, were hot and wet with 
their efforts, and the horse, steaming, trembled on his limbs, 
and could hardly draw. There were at least nine miles 
more of their disheartening journey before them, and the 
part}^ were already sorely spent. 

Fortunately some relief was at hand. Tiie state road had 
been gained, and a light buggy came hurrying along with 
Mr. Rennie Averill, who, at the solicitation of Mr. Burmeis- 
ter, the marine correspondent of the Chicago Inter-Ocean^ 
had nobly undertaken the task, from which several persons 
had recoiled on account of the severity of the storm and the 
dreadful condition of the roads, of bearing the wreck alarm 
to the station, not knowing that this had already been done 
by Mr. Woodward. With the aim of getting help for the 
hauling, the keeper jumped into the buggy and rode on with 
Mr. Averill, ahead of the crew. Before long they met 
another brave citizen, who was also hastening to the station 
with a double team to give the alarm. He reported another 
team behind him, on the road, and, at Captain Matthews' re- 
quest, which showed wise forethought, he pushed on to the 
station to bring up the life-car and Merriman suit, taking 
with him, by the keeper's order, Surfman La Cour, as he 
passed the cart on the way. The keeper also requested 
Mr. Benson to bring back Surfman La Rue, whom he judged 
to have reached the station by this time from his patrol. 
It is noticeable, and it is due to Captain Matthews, to say 
that his conduct of operations, from the beginning to the 
end of this laborious and difficult enterprise, was in the 
highest degree praiseworthy, no step being omitted or for. 
gotten which could facilitate the rescue. 

The life-saving creAV had got on with their load some 
half a mile further, when they were met by another citizen 



THE "SHORT CUT" 483 

witli a team of stout horses, sent on by the keeper to aid 
the hauling. A more rapid progress was now assured. The 
State road upon whicli they were traveling was a great im- 
provement on the trail they had left, although fearfully 
rough. It lay for four or live miles straight to Frankfort 
through dense timber, broken as it neared that place by an 
occasional farm clearing. The lower part of the town tra- 
versed, the road continued along the inner basin which forms 
the harbor, leading to a bridge spanning the river which 
feeds this place of anchorage. The bridge crossed, the 
track went on for some miles further through a dense growth 
of woods to the neighborhood of the wreck. Nearly the 
whole way was a series of steep up-grades, plentifully strown 
with pitch-holes. Along such a course the expedition vali- 
antly struggled, arrived at and rushed through Frankfort, 
emerged again upon the rugged country road, crossed the 
river, plunged into the woods, and finally, about half past 
ten o'clock, reached the rear base of the bastion of hiirh 
hills which separated them from the lake where the wreck 
lay. The ardor of the rushing march of this train of men 
and horses is shown by the fact that they conquered the 
rough stretch of ten miles in about two hours. 

The keeper had driven on to an elevated farm, known as 
Greenwood's, from whence he couid overlook the lake, and 
saw, about a quarter of a mile to the north, the wreck with 
the stormy water fl^^ing over her. He was returning toward 
the cart of apparatus, with the idea that the road to Green- 
wood's must be taken, when a citizen mounted on horse- 
back, rode up to him, crying out, " Follow me and I will 
show you a short cut." The party followed him through 
a ravine about a quarter of a mile. The way then led up 
the overhanging hillside through the brush, and the tug 
with the loaded cart was terrible. So steep was the ascent 
that man and beast had fairly to climb, and almost to hoist 
the cart after them. Nothing could have been done but for 



484 OBSTACLES TO OVERCOME. 

the aid of a crowd of sturdy towns-folk, who had assembled 
there, and, anticipating- tiie arrival of the life-saving- jjarty 
had cleared away with axes and hand-spikes a great deal of 
the undergrowth and fallen trees. Even with these impedi- 
ments removed, so precipitous was tiie acclivity that it took 
the united efforts of twenty-seven brawny men, by actual 
count, and a span of stout horses, to gain the summit, only 
about twenty feet being- made at a time. By these efforts, 
worthy of giants, the top of the hill was reached ; but the 
crowd were now brought up all standing by a belt of woods? 
as yet unpierced, which bristled along the crest of the emi- 
nence, and in which lay fallen trees half buried in the 
brush and dense undergrowth. The obstacle seemed to 
inspire all present Avith sudden electric energy. In an in- 
stant, all hands, citizens and crew, flung themselves upon 
the wood with axes, and a work began which resembled a 
combat. The wood seemed tumbling asunder, and its 
rapidly-opening depths were alive with rude figures in every 
variety of fiery action. In an incredibly short space of time 
the way through the Avood was cleared, and the mortar cart, 
loaded with apparatus, was dragged forward to the brow of 
the hill. The gap cloven by this heroic onset disclosed a 
strange and dreadful diorama. The concourse of life-savers, 
fifty or sixty in number, were upon the summit of a precipi- 
tous bluff nearly three hundred feet above the sea. This 
bluff was composed of sand, covered near the top with a 
yellow sandy loam, with here and there a patch of clay upon 
its slanted surface. The mass not being compact, owing to 
the nature of its substance, yielded readily to any force 
brought to bear upon it, and the gale, which Avas now bloAA^- 
ing Avith fury, beating- upon the acclivity like a simoon, flung 
up the sand for ten or tAvelve feet high upon the face of the 
slope, so that, to the gazer looking doAvn, the Avhole surface 
appeared in rapid and violent motion. Above the dusky 
layer of this sand-storm Avas an air thick and blurred Avith 



THE FRIGHTFUL SPECTACLE. 485 

the snow and rain, and the crowd lookini^ through, saw far 
below, looming with a sort of misty distinctness from the 
terrific confusion of the waters, the nearly sunken wreck, 
its two masts still standing, resembling grotesque dishevelled 
steeples made up of spar and cordage. This object had the 
effect of rendering all things subsidiary to itself — the im- 
mensity of livid and lowering atmosphere in which it was 
central — the ragged undulations of surf, bursting into foam, 
which flung themselves around it with furious celerity, and 
seemed racing toward it from the furthest sea. The hull 
was well smothered up in the breakers, but at intervals be- 
tween seas it appeared for a moment black and streaming as 
the surf on the bar fell away. Standing in the spreading 
ladders of the lower rigging, a few feet above the water, 
was a diminished figure Avith upturned face, watching the 
people on the summit of the bluff. This was the captain, 
The monstrous waves curled and broke below his feet, and 
covered him with their spray. Forty feet above him could 
be seen, lessened by distance, a huddle of faces, peering at 
the crowd on shore from the swaying cross-trees. These 
were the faces of the crew. The foretop-mast rose above 
them, and the gaff-topsail, partially unfurled, bulged and 
flapped over them in the tempest. This frightful specta- 
cle, seen by the crowd on the heights through the weird 
curtain of the tempest, amidst the uproar of the wind and 
sea, had something of the vivid unreality of the scenery of 
a vision. 

What tho crowd could not see, owing to the distance, 
was fraught wdtli deeper elements of pity and terror. The 
captain of the vessel, who had but recently recovered from 
a fever, stood covered with frozen snow and rain in the rat- 
lines, stiffened and discolored with exposure to the storm. 
High above him on their giddy and unstable perch, the six 
men crouched, blue in the face with cold. The fur}' of the 
wind in this tottering eyrie was such, that when one of the 



486 THE PERILOUS DESCENT. 

group had occasion to communicate witli another, he could 
only do so by shouting through hollowed hands into his ear. 
Amidst all the din of the gale and sea, the unhappy men 
could hear the harsh creaking of the mast as the vessel 
swayed too and fro. They expected every moment to go 
over. The poor woman, carefully swathed in canvass cut 
from one of the sails, lay delirious and numb with the cold, 
and finally yielded to a state of unconsciousness in spite of 
the best efforts of the kind-hearted sailors. 

No time was lost by the life-saving crew and citizens in 
commencing operations for the rescue. The prospect was 
discouraging in almost the last degree. Anxiously survey- 
ing the ground, Captain Matthews descried about two hun- 
dred and fifty feet beneath him, a narrow ledge or plateau, 
some ten or twelve feet wide, and at once determined that 
the cart must be lowered to this foothold as the place of 
operation. A portion of the whip-line was unwound from 
the reel and fastened to the body of the lowered vehicle as 
a dragrope, the other end being taken to a fallen tree as a 
loggerhead or snubbing-post. Surfmen Barney and Stokes 
and Citizen Woodward in the shafts to guide the cart, the 
rest of the crew and citizens seized the rope to lower away, 
and the perilous descent of the almost perpendicular cliff 
began. The descent continued steadily, without accident, 
to a point, when it was found that the line employed was 
too short to enable the cart to gain the plateau. The line 
was then cast off from the tree and held by the crowd, each 
man sitting and laying back with his feet braced in the 
sand, and clinging as a drag upon the burden. In this way 
the men slid down the bluff behind the cart. In a few 
minutes, panting and sweating with their effort, and looking 
like the dirtiest of brick-makers, they stood around the cart 
on the narrow ledge, the tremendous surf, thick with flood- 
wood, bursting in foam and spray a few feet below them. 

The cart was at once unloaded, the lines made readv- and 



OPERATIONS FOR TUE RESCUE. 487 

the Lvle gun planted and fired. It was then a little before 
11 o'clock. The charge was seven ounces, and at the first 
fire the shot, directed with great judgment on the part of 
the keeper, flew almost directly across the wind about two 
hundred yards beyond the vessel, carrying the line along 
her starboard broadside as she lay nearly head on to the 
shore, and letting it fall right upon her weather-rigging, 
fore and aft, where it was instantly caught by the captain. 
Unfortunately, the slack of the line was immediately swept 
by the wind and current under the head-gear of the wreck, 
where it fouled and could not be cleared by the people on 
board. The first effort to establish line communication Avith 
the wreck therefore proved a failure, and the shot-line was 
hauled in and faked for another trial. This time, with the 
view of overcoming the added weight of the line, Avhich 
was wet and clogged with sand, the keeper used an 
eight-ounce charge. He also trained the gun a little nearer 
the vessel, aiming to make the line fall higher against the 
rigging and to prevent, if possible, its fouling with the 
wreckage. His calculations were superbly accurate. Before 
the echoes of the report of the gun had ceased along the 
bluff, the line, flying aloft its full length, had fallen directly 
across the fore-rigging, where it was caught by the men in 
the cross-trees. 

It Avanted at this time a few minutes of noon, and the 
shipwrecked sailors were in possession of a line from the 
shore. The anxious question now was, whether this line 
would stand the strain of hauling out the double rope, or 
whip, running through a tail-block, which was at once bent 
on to it. As allowance had to be made for the slack caused 
by the distance and the tremendous current, there was a 
vast length of this double line to be paid out between ship 
and shore. It was manned by at least fifty men, Avho strung 
themselves along up the face of the bluff with the aim of 
keeping the line as much as po>;s;ible out of the sea, where it 



488 A TERRIBLE DISCOURAGEMENT. 

was endangered by the drift-stuff and wreckage. At times 
the force of the current would carr}^ both parts of the whip 
far to leeward, and the sailors Avould fail to haul in an inch, 
and could only take a turn with the shot-line around the heel 
of the foretopmast. Then the men upon the slope of the bluff 
would raise and straighten out the whip as much as possible 
and at a signal from the keeper below, suddenly slack, giv- 
ing the sailors in the cross-trees, working in concert with 
them, a chance to haul in a few feet at a time. These ma- 
noeuvres were regulated by the keeper solely in pantomime, 
for such Avas the uproar of the gale that the voice could not 
have been heard beyond the distance of a few feet, even 
through a speaking trumpet. The strain on the slender 
shot-line increased as it took out more and more of the whip 
line, and every moment the toilers on the slant of the ac- 
clivity, timing their labors to the gestures of the grimy 
figure below them, felt with him the dread that the strands 
would part ; but the tough, braided linen held, and, after 
more than two hours of such exertions as make the muscles 
tremble, they had the satisfaction of seeing the whip arrive, 
and the tail-block properly fastened around the lower mast- 
head and heel of the topmast, the block hanging forward off 
the cross-trees. 

A new obstacle, involving a terrible discouragement, had 
gradually been developed as the further end of the whip- 
line rose from the water up to the mast. The whole length 
of the double rope was seen to be twisted and full of turns. 
Every effort had been made to prevent this result ; the files 
of men that paid out the rope had been kept widely apart., 
with the members of the life-saving crew judiciously sta- 
tioned at certain parts among them, and two experienced 
surfmen had tended the reel on the cart which gave off the 
whip to the sea. 

The ardent throng of citizens, co-workers with the life- 
saving crew, were reasonably enough struck with consterna* 



THE BREEVIIE8-B UO Y 489 

tion at this incident. A volley of excited questions bejynn 
to shower upon the keeper in regard to what he was going' 
to do to save the men. Every other second anxious ques- 
tions or expressions of dejection Avere shouted at hiin through 
the uproar of the storm, and for a few moments his position 
was exceedingly trying. The croAvd, however, were good- 
natured and obedient in the highest degree, and presently 
every man rushed to his place under the keeper's orders, and 
all fell to work clearing the line. This was done by fastening 
one end to a tree on the brow of the hill and hauling it taut 
then untwisting or dipping the other part around it, tauten- 
ing up both parts from time to time while maintaining the 
operation. Finally, after fully an hour's work the last of the 
turns were out, and the line was clear. 

The breeches-buoy Avas at once rigged on. As the slope 
was constantly giving way, several small land-slides half- 
burying the men below, having already occurred, no sand 
anchor was planted, the keeper relying on the force he had 
under command to hold and handle the line. Surfman La 
Cour Avas stationed at the summit to tend the slack, Avhich 
he did by taking a turn with the line around a fallen tree. 
The buoy then Avent out toAvard the Avreck, urged by the 
^ager arms of the haulers. 

As the men avIio Avorked the line Avere compelled by the 
steepness of the bank to stand in constrained positions, half 
upright, half reclining, upon ground constantly giving Avay, 
and Averc also greatly hindered by the blinding sand and 
buffeting Avind, theoutAA^ard progress Avas sIoav, but at length 
it arrived at the mast. After some little delay, as though 
the people in the cross-trees hesitated, a man Avas seen 
through the dim atmosphere to get into the buoy, Avhich 
was at once hauled back to the shore. The hauling Avas 
done under such difficulties that the passage of the buoy to 
the shore occupied seventeen minutes by the watch of one 
of the bystanders. As it approached, several persons 



490 THE LIFE-CAB ATTACHED. 

rushed down the bank into the surf, and the man was pulled 
out and helped up to the little plateau. It was the first 
mate. His jaws were set, his eyes vacantly fixed, and the 
expression of his face dazed and frightened. A citizen 
gave him a draught of brandy. This seemed to revive 
him, and presently he said "Save the others." Two or three 
questions were asked him in regard to the vessel and per- 
sons on board, which he answered faintly, and he was 
then led away toward the town, supported on either side 
by two citizens. 

In reply to one interrogation, he had been understood by 
the keeper to say that the woman in the cross-trees did not 
want to come ashore in the buoy, and as he left, the keeper 
was notified by Surfman La Cour that the tree to which the 
whip-line Avas secured was slowly giving away, and the 
bank coming down under the strain. This circumstance 
and the mate's declaration, decided the keeper to substitute 
the life-car for the buoy, partly because the car could be 
towed out like a boat until it reached the mast, thus re- 
lieving the latter of a certain amount of tension upon it, 
while its use also dispensed Avith the fallen tree and spared 
the pull upon the bank; partly, also, because its employ- 
ment might facilitate the rescue by landing a greater num- 
ber of the ship-wrecked at each trip. The car was accord- 
ingly ordered forward, and the keeper, with his own hands, 
attached it to the lines. Every face blazed with excitement 
as the hauling began. The life-car, as soon as it entered 
the surf, was dashed about like a cockle shell. After pro- 
tracted efforts on the part of the haulers, it had at length 
reached the wreck, when, all at once, the jagged main- 
mast, which had fallen some time before, and was swing- 
ing along the side with other wreckage, rose on the sum- 
mit of a Yiugo breaker, and lunging like a battering-ram, 
struck the car such a blow that it tossed it a dozen feet 
springing into the air. Although every heart throbbed with 



THE CREW SAFE. 491 

painful anxiety, the life-savers took swift advantage of the 
momentary lightening of the line to haul in the slack, and 
raise the car up, where it hung almost straight up and down 
some twelve feet below the masthead. Without the least delay 
three of the men were successively lowered from the cross- 
trees by ropes around their bodies, and got in. The door 
of the car was closed. All hands on the hillside then fell 
to work and the car approached the shore. As it drew 
near, floundering in the surf, the keeper and several men 
rushed down waist-deep into the foaming flood, siezed and 
dragged in tiie car, unclasped the door and liberated the 
sailors. They were tended by kindly ministrations and 
conveyed to a place of shelter and succor which they so 
sorely needed. 

The life-car had received some damage around the hatch- 
way and cover from the blow of the mast and the battering 
wreckage. It was speedily hammered into shape and again 
sent out on the lines. The haulers had learned by their 
first experience how to handle the ropes, and the car pur- 
sued its course tnrough the broken water Avithout capsizing. 
From time to time during the strenuous hauling bursts of 
sand on the slope indicated the moments when the ground 
gave way under the feet of the files of devoted men 
toiling in the heart of the gale, and who could be seen on 
these occasions to slide and stagger as they pulled, strug- 
gling to preserve their foothold or escape engulfment. The 
tempest continued to scourge the escarpment with unabated 
violence, and the air of the waning afternoon was thicker 
than ever witl? tlie wind-blown rain, snow, and hail, driven 
in alternate gusts, and interblent with the driving substance 
of the hills. Amidst this continued fury the car slowly 
worked on toward the wreck. 

It will perhaps be unnecessary for us to give further de- 
tails of this thrilling example of the work of the crew of 
one life-saving station. All were finally brought to shore 



492 WBEGE OF THE SCHOONER "A. B. GOODMAN." 

alive, except, unfortunately, the woman, and she had ceased 
to live long before the first car reached the vessel. It be- 
came impossible even to bring her body ashore, to the 
great disappointment of the anxious ones on shore. 

We have detailed this incident thus minutely because of 
its thrilling interest, and also because it has exhibited the 
variety of ways in which the service employ themselves and 
their implements. 

Imagine many similar incidents taking place annually, and 
it will give some idea of the immense and heroic service 
rendered by these crews and their keepers. Surely it is a 
noble and practical service to sustain liberally. Looking at 
it from a selfish point of view, we cannot tell but it may be 
our turn to need just such assistance some day. 

Another fatal wreck, within life-saving limits, was that of 
the schooner A. B. Goodman, of Seaford, Delaware, bound 
from Baltimore, Marjdand, to New Berne, North Carolina, 
with a cargo of guano, and having on board five men, in- 
cluding the captain. The wreck took place on April 4, 1881, 
at about half-past 6 o'clock in the evening, the vessel stiik- 
ing during a northwest gale, upon the outer edge of the 
inner shoal off Cape Hatteras, and being at once boarded 
by the sea, there was only time in the overwhelming rush 
of waters for the men to fly to the rigging ; in the effort to 
gain which, one of them, Louis Beck, was swept overboard, 
and drowned. 

The point at which the disaster took place was about 
three miles from shore, and six miles east of Life-Saving 
Station No. 22, Sixth District, North Carolina. This station 
is built upon tlie rise of an eminence known as Creed's Hill, 
and its north patrol reaches for six miles around the edge of 
the dreaded cape. Looking from the station, the vieAv 
toward the cape presents to the eye the aspect of an im- 
mense desert of sand, strangely and fantastically sprinkled 
all over Avith gnarled and twisted trunks of black, dead 



THE VESSEL SIGHTED. 493 

trees. In winter, or during tlie inclement season, nothing 
more dismal could well be imagined than this Sahara, with 
its thin remnant of a former vegetation killed by the salt 
tides. The level is only diversified by occasional mounds of 
sand, and, here and there, pools of sea-water, left by some 
overflow in the hollows. Behind, or to the west, a forest of 
pines and live oaks, dense and almost impenetrable, stretches 
away northward to Hatteras light-house. All around the 
cape for two miles, in storms at flood-tides, a heavy sea 
swings across the low and somewhat shelving beach, in 
among its bordering hummocks, and back again with violence, 
ploughing gullies as it runs. The surf makes the sand a 
quag, quicksands form in the gullies, and the solitary pa- 
trolman, making his way along the top of the beach in the 
darkness by the dim light of his lantern, faces the chances 
of destruction, being liable to be swept off his feet by the 
rush or refluence of the surf, sucked down in the gullies by 
the quicksands, or struck by some fragment of wreck-stuff 
shot forth by the breakers. Yet his dreadful watch is made 
necessary by the presence off shore by a nest of shoals, 
range after range, which are the terror of navigators. The 
first, a mile wide, stretches from the point of the cape be- 
iween two and three miles seaward, covered with a depth 
of only seven feet of water, which in storms are miles of 
raging foam. This formation is, in fact, a submarine pro- 
longation of the cape. Beyond it, separated by half a mile 
of channel, is another formidable shoal, the Diamond, two 
miles long; and beyond this again, another range of shallows, 
the outer shoals. For six or seven miles out from shore, 
these terrible bottoms spread their ambush for shipping, 
and hence the watch in this locality for vessels in danger 
requires to be particularly kept around the point of the 
cape, no matter at what toil or hazard to the sentinel. On 
the evening of the disaster to the A. B. Goodman, the pa- 
trol-nan, pursuing his journey through the floods sheeting 



494 TO THE RESCUE. 

across his way, in the midst of a squall of rain and snow, 
saw far off, despite the distance and thick weather, the dim 
outlines of a vessel, and knew by this indication that there 
was some sort of a craft in the neighborhood of the shoals, 
though exactly where, or whether in danger, it was impos- 
sible to determine. The fact was reported by 10 o'clock to 
the keeper, B. B. Daily, who was up at dawn, and saw the 
schooner evidently aground, and, in fact, sunk, on the outer 
edge of the first range of shoals. He at once ordered out 
the surf-boat to the rescue. 

The storm of the evening before had been brief, and the 
wind, blowing freshly from the north-northwest, had beaten 
down the surf upon the beach, the sea, therefore, was 
smooth for launching, but beyond, it was very heavy. 
Heaps of water incessantly tumbling, and thickets of burst- 
ing foam filling the offing, and the current running one way, 
while the wind was the other, made an ugly cross-sea. The 
little group of surfmen about to enter upon this stormy field 
had still a more serious peril before them than the chance 
of being overswept or capsized by the colliding waters. 
Their boat being light and flat-bottomed, the breeze, which 
was strong and off shore, might make return impossible, 
and force them out to sea, where they would almost cer- 
tainly be lost. Nevertheless, as the stout keeper said, in 
his testimony, " they knew it was their duty to do what 
they could, so they did it." The group consisted of the 
keeper and six surfmen. One of the crew was left in charge 
at the station. It is certain none of the crew expected to 
return alive. The disposition of their slender effects was a 
part of the charge, given to the remaining surfman by his 
companions in case they perished. Having made this sim- 
ple will as men facing the issues of life and death, they en- 
tered the boat and gave way. For some distance out the 
surf-boat kept the lee of the cape, where the surf was com- 
paratively smooth. They ultimately rounded the cape, and 



TO THE RESCUE. 495 

entered the terribly roug-li water where the greatest cir- 
cumspection was necessary in the management of the boat. 
Finally, at about half-past 7 o'clock, two hours after starting 
the life-saving crew arrived near the wrecked schooner. 

She was completely sunk, her hull all under. Only her 
two masts stuck up from the swirling water, and perched up 
in the main cross-trees, wrapped in the main-gaff topsail, 
were huddled the four wretched survivors of her crew of 
five. After three or four daring and dangerous attempts to 
get near, baffled by the strong current and the vast commo- 
tion of the sea above the sunken hull, keeper Daily hailed 
the despairing group upon the mast, telling them to keep 
good heart and that they would be rescued as soon as possi- 
ble ; then dropped astern about three hundred j^ards and 
let go the anchor, having decided tliat it was necessary to a 
successful effort to wait. The efforts already made had con- 
sumed much time, and the boat anchored within an hour of 
noon. An hour afterward, the flood-tide somewhat smoothed 
the break of the sea over the sunken hull, and the life-sav- 
ing crew got up their anchor, worked up to the windward 
of the vessel, where they again moored, and then slowly and 
cautiously, by slacking on the anchor line, let the boat veer 
down toward the mainmast of the wreck. Once Avithin 
range, the keeper hove his boat-hook, by a line attached, 
into the rigging and held on. The fateful moment had ar- 
rived, the boat was slacked in, so that the keeper could get 
hold of the first man that came down from aloft, and the 
first mate slowly descended the rigging. As he came with- 
in reach, the keeper, standing in the stern of the boat, 
seized him, but the man terrified at the frightful rush and 
roar of waters beneath him, and doubtless unmanned by 
cold and hunger, and the many hours of horror he had un- 
dergone, broke from the keeper's hold and clambered up 
the rigging again. The boat was hauled back a little, and 
the keeper spoke up cheerily, encouraging the men in the 



496 THE CREW 8A VED. 

cross-trees, and declaring they would all be saved. Pres- 
ently, the line was again slacked, the boat veered down, 
and the mate once more descended. His fright again 
seized him, but the keeper, forwarned, got a mighty hold, 
and by sheer force, jerked him out of the rigging and 
landed him in the boat. The captain then came down, was 
seized by the keeper the moment he came within reach, and 
torn from the shrouds. The other two men, emboldened by 
this energetic succession of deliverance, slid down the rig- 
ging and jumped into the boat without aid. Quickly the 
keeper then let slack his warp, recovered his boat-hook, 
and gave the word to haul back to the anchor. Three of 
the rescued men were seated on the thwarts, the captain 
in the stern-sheets, the anchor was got up, and the hard 
work of the return was began. 

By this time the wind had changed to west-southwest, 
blowing freshly, and so roughening the Avater on the south 
side of the shoals — which was the side on which the approach 
to the wreck had been made — that the keeper decided it 
would be safer to attempt the landing on the north side, or 
near Hatteras light-house. The men gave way with a will, 
wind and sea against them. The light keepers watching 
them as they toiled upon the running swells, had some time 
before made up their minds that they would not be able to 
get to land that night if they ever did. But the strenuous 
effort conquered, and somewhere about two o'clock the life- 
saving crew, dripping and exhausted, gained the beach, near 
the light-house tower, with the sailors they had saved. 

These sailors were at once taken up to the light-house by 
the keepers, where a meal was set before them. No food 
had passed their lips since about eleven o'clock of the day 
previous, and they were nearly perished with cold and hun- 
ger. Their rescuers were in little better condition, having 
eaten nothing since four o'clock the day before. Neverthe- 
less, without waiting to share in the repast of the sailors, 



THE RETURN. 



497 



they set off to their own quarters, a tramp of nearly five 
miles. They reached the station greatly exhausted, all of 
them had been out on the tempestuous patrol for some part 
of the night before. From this uight of broken rest, they 
had passed abruptly to eight hours of tragic labor under 
the shadow of death upon the sea. Their valiant rescue 
achieved, there still remained this long trudge, which left 
them finally at the station, a group of haggard, worn-out 
men. 

Descant is unnecessary on the feat they performed in 
saving the four sailors. Such deeds attest themselves; and 
there are few scenes in human life more deeply affecting 
than the spectacle of this crew of poor men making their 
wills upon the beach, and leaving their small store of effects 
in charge of a comrade for the benefit of their families before 
entering upon a struggle of deadly peril for the lives of four 
unhappy creatures, who, in their d}ing misery, must have 
thought themselves abandoned forever by man. To have 
done this — to have quietly resigned the certainties for the 
chances of existence in such a case and under such circum- 
stances — was more than noble ; and there can be no hearts, 
however cold, that will not feel that in this action the unas- 
suming surfmen of an obscure coast reached again, as many 
low-down and almost nameless men have reached, the full 
stature of heroism. 





EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 




LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS. 

object can be more suggestive of pleasant 
thoughts, of home, of peace, and security 
than a lighthouse. Whether placed upon 
a headland overlooking a wide expanse of 
ocean, or on a rock lashed by the foaming 
billows, it is a welcome sight to the traveler returning to 
his native country after a long absence, and it is a grateful 
object to those Avho are leaving -home for distant regions, 
who, after leaving port, can trace for many miles the 
friendly light, the last visible connection that unites their 
thoughts to those who are left behind. 

The absence of the lights that stream over the heaving 
waters would indeed be a calamity ; indicative, probably, of 
war's fatal struggles, when a nation dreading hostile inva- 



TUK "PUAROSr THE OLDEST LIGHTHOUSE. 499 

sion would seek to foil their enemies by extinguishing these 
lights, and thus leaving them to the perils of shoals and 
quicksands, of breakers and the rocks. Witliout these 
glimmering lights it would be impossible to guide a ship 
throiigh the perilous ocean ; commerce would languish, and 
all the civilizing influences encouraged by trade would be 
lost. 

The earliest allusion to lighthouses or " beacons " to 
guide the mariner on his sea-journey, date from a remote 
period. Homer, alluding to the shield of Achilles, beauti- 
fully describes the flash of a beacon-light in some solitary 
place, as seen by seamen leaving their friends, m verses 
wdiich contain ample proof of the existence of such a 
provision for the marinei-'s safety in the poet's time. 

The oldest lighthouse on record is the celebrated Pharos, 
erected on the Egyptian coast, which, being very low land, 
and exposed almost entirely to the west winds coming up 
the Mediterranean from the vast Atlantic, must of necessity 
have made the port of Alexandria very dangerous. This 
lighthouse was erected 300 years' B. C. for the convenience of 
the Phoenician merchants who constantly traded with Egypt. 

The island of Pharos, upon which the lighthouse Avas 
erected, was said, in the time of Homer, to be one day's sail 
from the Delta (a triangular portion of Lower Egypt com- 
prised between the two main branches of the Nile, and so 
called from its resemblance to the Greek letter D, a) • where- 
as, since the foundation of Alexandria, it was only a mile in 
distance, and was even joined to the mainland by a mole or 
artificial embankment having a bridge at each end. 

This tower, if statements are true, Avas justly entitled to 
the honor claimed for it as one of the seven wonders of the 
w^orld. It is stated to have been five hundred and fifty feet 
in height, and the cost of erection was equivalent, in our 
money, to nearly $700,000. The architect was Sostratus, 
the constructor of many public buildings in Alexandria. 



500 THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF APOLLO AT BH0DE8. 

The lighthouse consisted of several stories, one raised above 
the other, each decorated with columns, balustrades, and 
galleries made of the finest marble and of the most exquisite 
workmanship. It has been said that Sostratus furnished the 
galleries with large mirrors, by which shipping could be 
seen at a considerable distance. A fire was kept constantly 
burning on the summit, and, according to Josephus, the 
Jewish historian, the light was seen at the distance of three 
hundred stadii (about forty-two miles). 

In more modern times the Turks erected two forts on the 
points occupied by this Pharos, one of which was the site 
of the far-famed lighthouse. 

The celebrated colossal statue of Apollo at Rhodes is 
said to have supplied the purpose of a lighthouse. This 
figure was of bronze, and a period of twelve years is stated 
to have been employed in constructing it, three hundred 
years before the Christian era. Tlie expenses of erection 
amounted to a sum estimated in our money at nearly 
$300,000. The gigantic size of this figure may be conceived 
from the account given, that few men were able to encom- 
pass one of its thumbs with their arms. The Rhodians 
placed this brazen sentinel at the entrance of their port. 
The heathen deity was represented wearing a radiant crown, 
holding in one hand an arrow, and in the other a brazier 
containing fire. This stupendous statue was overthrown by 
an earthquake about eighty years after its erection; and 
when the Saracens took Rhodes in 667, they loaded one hun- 
dred camels with the bronze that remained, and the rest 
was sold afterwards to a Jewish merchant for a sum equiv- 
alent to $144,000. 

An edifice, called by the inhabitants of the Archipelago 
the " Lamp of Diogenes," stood on the shores of the ^gean 
sea. It was a tomb erected in memory of Diogenes, who 
had such a knowledge of the art of navigation that no 
ancient mariner would undertake a voyage without consult- 



LIGHTHOUSE ON THE EDDTSTONE ROCKS. 501 

ing him. At the angles of this building were columns, on 
which tires were placed for the service of vessels navigating 
those dangerous seas. 

One of the greatest achievements of modern science in 
in connexion with lighthouses is that effected by the famous 
engineer Smeaton on the dangerous Eddystone rocks, about 
fourteen miles distance from Plymouth, England, which are 
so exposed to the heavy swells from the Bay of Biscay 
and the Atlantic that the waves beat upon them at times 
with fearful violence. In 1696, notwithstanding the many 
difficulties which seemed tc interfere with the erection of a 
lighthouse on rocks so situated, Henry Winstanley suc- 
ceeded in accomplishing (for a time) the desired object. 

The lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks was commenced 
in 1696, and the first light appeared on the 14th of Novem- 
ber, 1698. Finding that the tower was greatly exposed 
during the storms of winter — the waves covering the lantern 
at times, although at a height of sixty feet — Winstanley 
encompassed the building with a new work of four feet in 
thickness from the foundation, making all solid to the height 
of twenty feet ; he also took down the upper part of the 
first building, and enlarging every part in its proportion, 
raised it forty feet higher than it was originall}', and yet 
the sea in stormy weather rose one hundred feet above the 
vane, and at times covered half the side of the house and 
the lantern, as if they were under water. The building was 
so fantastically constructed and seemed so slight, that gene- 
ral opinion was against its security, but the architect himself 
w^as so firmly convinced of its stability that he frequently 
Avished he might be there in the greatest storm that could 
happen. This desire was fatally gratified. In November, 
1703, Winstanley went out to the rocks to superintend some 
repairs, and that very night a fearful tempest arose, which 
so increased the following day, that the lighthouse and all 
its inmates were swept in the foaming waters. 



502 B UD YARD'S LIGHTHO USE BESTBO TED. 

Nearly three years elapsed after this sad event before 
another attempt was made to replace the lighthouse on the 
Eddystone rocks. The building was commenced in 1706, 
and was lighted two years afterwards. 

Rudyard's lighthouse enjoyed an immunity from serious 
accidents for a space of thirty-eight years, when, at the 
close of 1744, a fearful storm occurred, in which the ship 
Victory was lost close to the building, which was considera- 
bly damaged in consequence, and an opening made into the 
store-room. In 1755 the catastrophe occurred which de- 
stroyed the lighthouse. On the 2d December, in that year, 
the lighthouse keeper then on watch, about two o'clock in 
the morning, went into the lantern to snuff the candles. He 
found the whole place in a smoke, and upon opening the 
door of the lantern into the balcony, a flame instantly burst 
from the inside of the cupola. He endeavored to alarm his 
companions, but they being fast asleep were not able to 
come to his assistance so readily as the occasion required. 
He attempted to extinguish the flames with some water 
kept in a tub in the lantern, but the fire increasing, the poor 
fellow found himself unable to stop its progress. As he was 
looking upwards, a quantity of molten lead suddenly rushed 
like a torrent from the roof, and falling upon his head, face, 
and shoulders, burnt him fearfully. His companions, dis- 
mayed at the extent of the conflagration, descended to the 
rock, with little hope of being saved. It seems that at an 
early hour the flames were seen by some of the Cawsand 
fishermen ; and on intelligence being given, a fishing-boat, 
manned with a strong crew, was dispatched at once. The 
boat arrived about eight hours after the fire had broken out, 
during which time the three keepers of the lighthouse had 
not only been driven from all the rooms and the staircase, 
but to avoid the fall of the timber and red-hot bolts, they 
were found sitting in a hole or cave, on the east side of the 



SMEATON'S ERECTION ON THE EDDYHTONE. 503 

rock, almost in a state of stupefaction. They were conveyed 
safely to Plymouth. 

This fire occurred in 1753, and it was then determined 
that the lighthouse should be constructed of stone, and that 
no expense should be spared to render it the most perfect 
of its kind. The architect chosen was the famous John 
Smeaton, one of the most extraordinary men of the age. 
The first stone of the edifice was laid the 12th June, 1757, 
and the whole undertaking of constructing the lighthouse 
was accomplished within a space of little more than three 
years, without the loss of life or limb to those engaged in 
the perilous undertaking. It was an anxious time for Smea- 
ton and those who were engaged witli him. When the 
weather was tempestuous the lighthouse was inaccessible. 
One of the keepers, Henry Edwards, after a heavy storm 
had prevented any boat from approaching the rocks, sent a 
note to the manager of the works, stating " that the sea ran 
over the house in such a manner that for twelve days to- 
gethey they could not open the door of the lantern, nor any 
other. The house shook as if a man had been up in a great 
tree. The old men were almost frightened out of their 
lives, wishing they had never seen the place. The fear 
occasioned pains in the back, but rubbing them with oil of 
turpentine gave them relief." The lighthouse itself bore 
the storm admirably, and suffered nothing from it. 

The present edifice is a circular tower sweeping up with 
a gentle curve from the base, and gradually diminishing 
to the top. The upper extremity is furnished with a kind 
of cornice, and is surmounted b}' a lantern, having a gallery 
around it with an iron balustrade. The tower is furnished 
with a door, and windows, and staircase. Round the upper 
storeroom is the inscription: " Except tlie Lord build the 
house, they labor in vain that build it. — Psalm cxxvii." 
Over each side of the lantern are the words and date: 
"August 24th, 1759. Laus Deo." 



504 THE BELL-ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. 

A very great achievement in the erection of lighthouses 
since the daj^s of Smeaton, is that of the "Bell-Rock" tower in 
Scotland, built upon a dangerous sunken reef, about eleven 
miles from Arbroath, on the northern side of the entrance 
of the great estuary or arm of the sea, called the Firth of 
Forth, and, as such, directly affecting the safety of all ves- 
sels entering the Firth of Tay. The *' Inchcape," or Bell- 
Rock, had always been a perilous point to navigators, and 
in former times a bell was placed there by the Abbot of 
Aberbrothock, or Arbroath, which was put in movement by 
the waves. This was the only expedient that could then be 
devised. According to tradition, some pirates having car- 
ried off this bell, were, on a subsequent voyage, lost on the 
same rock. Southey's thrilling ballad of the " Inchcape 
Bell " is founded on this legend. 

The building was commenced in 1807 (17th August), under 
the control of Mr. Robert Stephenson, the engineer to the 
Lighthouse Board, and whose plan — a tower of masonry, on 
the principle of the Eddystone Lighthouse — was adopted. 
From an account of these operations, written by that emi- 
nent engineer, we learn how severe and perilous Avas the 
undertaking, the rock being only dry for a few hours at 
spring-tides, and affording but little time for laying the 
foundations of the building with requisite security. This, 
however, under many difficulties, was effected, and the first 
stone of the lighthouse laid 10th July, 1808, at the depth 
of sixteen feet below high water at spring-tide. The whole 
of the masomy to the height of thirty feet, was completed 
in 1810, the light being exhibited for the first time 1st Feb- 
ruary, 1811. 

Another celebrated stone lighthouse on the Scottish 
coast, is that placed on the " Skerryvore " rocks, which lie 
about twelve miles off the Isle of Tyree, in Argyllshire. 
These rocks were for a long period the terror of mariners, 
and numerous shipwrecks had occurred in their vicinity. 



506 THE ' ' SKEBBTVOBE " LIGHTHO USE. 

Owing to the great difficulty of landing upon these rocks, 
which are worn smootli by the continual beating of the 
Atlantic waves, it was not until 1834 that the idea of erect- 
ing a lighthouse was seriously entertained. In such a sit- 
uation as that of Skerryvore everything had to be pro- 
vided before hand, and transported from a distance. The 
design for the building was made by Mr. Alan Stephenson, 
son of the celebrated architect of the Bell-Rock Lighthouse, 
and was an adaptation of Smeaton's Eddystone tower. 
Many were the vicissitudes and privations experienced in 
this undertaking, but this stately and noble building re- 
mains a boon to seamen, the signal of trust and confidence 
to the sea-bound mariner. 

Other important lighthouses of stone might be men- 
tioned, such as the " Bishop Rock," the " Needles," the 
" Smalls," etc. Iron lighthouses have of late been erected, 
and appear to be admirably suited to the purpose, and com- 
paratively inexpensive. The "Northfleet" is built of this 
material, and is in open skeleton work. Iron lighthouses 
have been adopted in several of the British colonies. 

The list so far mentioned does not include all, nor indeed 
any, considerable portion of the lighthouses of the world. 
However, these few so briefly described, with a few others 
to follow, that are situated on our own coasts, will probably 
serve to illustrate their general use and tlie improvements 
made from time to time in the different styles of architec- 
ture together with the erection of more durable structure 
and methods of lighting. 

The earlier history of lighthouses in this country ante- 
dating the Revolution is somewhat obscure. Previous to 
1789 the expense of keeping up the few then standing ;ivas 
borne by the commonwealths in which they were situated ; 
after that time they were turned over by the respective 
States of Colonies to the General Government, and the im- 
provement following has been commensurate with the pro- 



MINOT'S LEDOE LIGHTHOUSE. 507 

gress of the country in other matters pertiiining- to its well- 
fare. 

The first light-house built by the United States was 
lighted in 1791. Tliere were then but a total of nine lights 
on the whole North American coast. They have since mul- 
tiplied in an astonishing ratio. In 1822, there were 70 ; in 
1838, 238, and in 1875 there were 925 lighthouses and 23 
lightships or beacons. 

Before 1852 this matter of sea-coast illumination was 
under the control of a single subordinate officer of the 
Treasury. Since that time the Service has been reorgan- 
ized and placed in the hands of the United States Light- 
house Board, consisting of eight persons, viz.: two officers 
of the corps of engineers, and two civilians of high scienti- 
fic attainments and others. The Board is attached to the 
office of the Secretary of the Treasury, who is ex officio 
president of it. A chairman is chosen from among the 
Board who presides in the absence of the Secretary of the 
Treasury. 

The labors of this Board have become very heavy. They 
now have charge of nearly 1,000 lighthouses, lightships, and 
beacons, and about 3,000 buoys and a great number of fog- 
signals and fog-bells situated all along the immense coast- 
line of this country. They meet in session very frequently 
and are continually trying difficult experiments for the 
betterment of the system. 

Out of this great number of lighthouses on our coasts, 
there is, probably, none more famous than the Minot's 
Ledge lighthouse. The Minot's rocks are situated just east 
of Boston Bay, and for years they had been the terror of 
sailors, probably being the cause of a greater number of 
wrecks than any other reefs on our extensive coasts. 

Captain W. H. Swift, U. S. Engineer, in 1848 began the 
difficult labor of putting up an iron structure on the outer 
or most seaward of the Minot group. Notwithstanding the 



508 MODES OF SIGNALLING IN TIMES OF FOGS. 

many obstacles to be overcome, the work was completed in 
about a year. In 1851 a terrific storm arose, completely 
destroying this structure and all who were in it. 

Every commercial and human consideration required that 
there should be a beacon on this ledge. Congress promptly 
took the matter in hand, making the necessary appropria- 
tions, and the erection of a new tower was immediately 
begun under the charge of the newly created Lighthouse 
Board. The work began in July, 1855, and was completed 
in September, 1860, and cost nearly $300,000. The struc- 
ture is of stone and over 114 feet high. It has so far with- 
stood all the power of the elements, and is a grand monu- 
ment of modern engineering skill. 

Bells, as a warning to mariners, have been and are still 
generally employed at light-houses as one of the best modes 
of signalling in times of fogs. We have already alluded to 
the Inchcape Bell, and to Mr. Stephenson's lighthouse on 
that dangerous rock. The machinery which causes the 
reflectors to revolve every half-minute is made to ring two 
large bells, each weighing about twelve hundred-weight, to 
warn the seaman of his danger when too near this rock. 

In some lighthouses guns are fired during fogs : at those 
in Nova Scotia, horns are sounded during fogs, and these are 
heard at a distance of three miles. In a lighthouse near 
Holyhead, England, built on the middle of an island under 
a cliff, and connected with the mainland by a bridge, tamed 
sea-birds are employed as signals. The gulls perch on the 
walls of the lighthouse, and utter cries that warn the sailor. 
This lighthouse has a bell and a gun, but the natural signal 
has been judged so superior that the cannon has been re- 
moved some distance from the rock for fear lest the noise 
should startle the birds. In this island the young gulls run 
about among the white rabbits, with whom they live on the 
most intimate terms. 



COAL Oli WOOD FIRES FORMER Y USED. 509 

Gongs are used in some lighthouses, and are found of 
great use. 

A steam trumpet is used, the sound of which can be heard 
at a considerable distance. The instrument can be tuned at 
will, and thus produces different notes. A small quantity 
of steam suffices. 

In Scotland whistles are placed in the lanterns of the 
lighthouses, and these communicate by tubes with the 
rooms below, in order to summon assistance if required, and 
thus avoid the necessity of the keeper in charge leaving his 
post until relieved. 

In the absence of any authority respecting the material 
with which the earliest lighthouses were illuminated, we 
may naturally conclude that wood furnished the means, with 
any other substance which would give intensity to the flame, 
or contribute to its duration. 

In England, lighthouses from an early period appear to 
have been illuminated by coal or wood fires contained in 
pans. At the close of the seventeenth century an iron grate 
on the top of the North Foreland Lighthouse, in Kent, Eng- 
land, contained a coal fire open to the air; and later, in 1732, 
the top of the tower was covered with a sort of lantern 
with large sash windows, and the light of the fire was kept 
up by bellows, which were moved during the night by at- 
tendants. The last coal-light — that of St. Bee's in Cumber- 
land — ^^was only extinguished in 1822. To coal fires suc- 
ceeded tallow candles, and these were fastened in wooden 
rods, as they are sometimes seen arranged before booths in 
fairs. These were in use for forty years at the Eddystone 
Lighthouse after it was completed by Smeaton. 

The use of oil does not seem to date back beyond 1730: 
lamps with twisted cotton wicks were used, but these were 
always attended with smoke and a bad smell. The iirst 
decided improvement was made by M. Argand, a native of 
Geneva, who, in 1784, invented a lamp with a circular wick. 



510 LATER ADAPTATIONS. 

The flame thus became a hollow cylinder, with a current of 
air ascending through the inside, so that the burning surface 
was doubled. To make these lamps more effective for 
lighthouses, and to prevent the rays of light from escaping 
on all sides, a reflector was added by M. Lenoir. This 
threw the light forward in parallel rays toward such points 
of the horizon as would be useful to mariners ; but M. 
Augustin Fresnel was the first to introduce lenticular action 
into lighthouse illumination by tlie adoption of the annular 
or built lens. Along Avith Arago he investigated the action 
exercised by polarized rays of light on each other, and the 
practical application of his theory to the improvement of 
the lighthouse system was of immense value, and quite 
abolished the old method of illuminating the " sea 
sentinels." 

Among the later adaptations for this object are the intro- 
duction of gas, but this is attended by the uncertainty and 
other objections connected with its manufacture and use in 
remote and inaccessible places. It is, however, of great 
convenience and use in harbor lights. 

The attention of scientific men, so far as lighthouses are 
concerned, is now almost confined to the discovery of the 
best modes of producing the light. That in ordinary use 
leaves little to be desired when the weather is tolerably 
clear ; since a first-class oil light, at the height on which it 
is usually elevated, is visible from the masthead when the 
vessel comes above the horizon of the lighthouse. It is in 
hazy weather that a more intense light becomes desirable. 
There is the " Drummond" light, which consists in substitut- 
ing for the Argand burner a small ball of lime ignited by the 
combustion of oxygen and hydrogen; but the difficulty of 
obtaining a continuous combustion has hitherto prevented the 
adoption of this means of illumination in lighthouses. The 
" electric" light has undergone careful trials by the govern- 
ment authorities. It possesses an advantage from its not 



ELECTRIC LIGHT. 511 

being a mere spark of very snuiU size, as compared with an 
oil lamp of the same power ; for this enables much smallei 
optical apparatus to be used, occasioning not only a saving 
of cost, but a saving of light — tlie loss of light being less 
when the glass is thinner. The electro-magnetic light has 
been seen thirty minutes after losing sight of the lower 
lights — that is, at the rate of a steamer's progress — a distance 
of about seven miles. Taking all things into consideration, it 
seems likely that the electric light is destined to supersede 
all kinds of oil for lighthouse illumination : its far-reaching 
property, and its power to penetrate fogs, must in the end 
obtain for it the victory over all other sources of light. 

To these notices of the structures raised for the guidance 
and security of mariners, we will now add some observations 
on the mmna^ec? sentinels of the seas: those men to whose 
care these all-important buildings are intrusted. Life in a 
lighthouse would seem to us a terrible hardship. Perhaps 
one of the worst of criminals, who might be indifferent to 
most kinds of penal punishment, would be terrified if he 
were condemned to pass the remainder of his life on a soli- 
tary rock amidst the wide ocean. It would appear, indeed, 
diflScult to reconcile the mind to a service so lonely and 
peculiar, not unfrequently attended at some places with 
risks and privations, and requiring an amount of vigilance 
and responsibilty not very tempting to most men in search 
of employment. Yet it appears that these situations are 
frequently sought after, and by persons who have been en- 
gaged in far different occupations. Some of these applicants 
have been carpenters, blacksmiths, domestic servants, but- 
chers, bricklayers, painters, bakers, coopers, tailors, etc. 
Among these individuals there are doubtless some whose 
taste for solitude may have induced them to forsake their 
occupations among the busy haunts of society, and others, 
perhaps, to whom the novelty of the employment might 
offer some attraction ; but it is a very singular circumstance 



512 



THE "ANIMATED" SENTINELS OF THE SEA. 



viidbi, almost all who have adopted a lighthouse for their 
home seem to have been satisfied with their choice, and 
some even have boasted that they would not change their 
solitary lot for any other. 

Appointments to positions in either of these branches of 
the national service depends entirely upon personal and 
superior fitness and not upon political preferment. And we 
venture to say that the labor performed by the servants 
and the supervision of that labor by the proper Govern- 
ment officers is as pains-taking and conscientious as any- 
thing well can be. If the battle-scarred veteran who has 
fought his country's battles, be so fortunate as to return 
from the scenes of conflict to his home and fireside, we, 
from motives of gratitude and warm, patriotic sentiments 
tugging at our hearts, Avelcome him with loud plaudits 
and crown him with laurels. It is right and becoming that 
we should do this, but at the same time let us not forget 
these other heroes who are equally deserving, though their 
noble and unselfish deeds of daring are not trumpeted 
abroad with marshal accessories and emblazonment. 

In concluding these brief notices, we trust the reader 
will often think of the lonely watchers to whose faithful 
care they are entrusted, with feelings of the deepest in- 
terest, for the lives of so many brave men, and the secu- 
rity of valuable vessels, depend upon their vigilance and 
unceasing attention. 




